Vygotsky’s theory was attacked by Zinchenko both in general and in particular. Zinchenko’s general, theoretical, critique centered on Vygotsky’s inclination to oppose the natural, biological functions to the higher, culturally mediated, psychological functions. Zinchenko argued that such an approach with ruin any attempt to understand the early stages of mental development as psychological rather than as physiological: “This loss of the ‘mental’ in the biological stage of development produced a situation in which the human mind was contrasted with purely physiological phenomena.” Vygotsky in this view, had overinflated the role of semiotic means of mediation: “[Vygotsky] began with the thesis that the mastery of the sign-means was the basic and unique feature of human memory processes. He considered the central feature of any activity of remembering to be the relation of the means to the object of that activity. But in Vygotsky’s thinking, the relation of the means to the object was divorced from the subject’s relation to reality considered in its actual and complete content. In the strict sense, the relation between the means and the object was logical rather than psychological. But the history of social development cannot be reduced to the history of the development of culture. Similarly, we cannot reduce the development of the human mind— the development of memory in particular— to the development of the relation of ‘external’ and ‘internal’ means to the object of activity. The history of cultural development must be included in the history of society’s social and economic development: it must be considered in the context of the particular social and social and economic relations that determine the origin and development of culture. In precisely this sense, the development of ‘theoretical’ or ‘ideal’ mediation must be considered in the context of the subject’s real, practical relations with reality, in the context of that which actually determines the origin, the development, and the content of mental activity.”
Concerning memory studies ( the focus of his own experimental work), Zinchenko suggested approaching involuntary memory as a psychological, rather than as a physiological, phenomenon and seeking its roots in children’s practical activities. Zinchenko’s experiments revealed that a child remembers either pictures or numbers depending upon which one of these two groups of stimuli plays an active role in the child’s activity, which in both cases was not an activity of memorization but of classification. Zinchenko emphasized that it is the involvement of the stimuli in the activity of classification that ensures their involuntary memorization. Involuntary memory in the child thus appeared, on the one hand, as a psychological rather than as a natural, biological function and, on the other hand, as a process intimately connected with practical activity, rather than with means of semiotic mediation. In order to challenge Vygotsky’s position, Zinchenko would have his readers believe— incorrectly, in my opinion— that Vygotsky saw no difference between natural, eidetic memory and involuntary memorization. Zinchenko also choose to ignore Luria’s cross-cultural study, which had showed, in the framework of the concept of psychological tools, a number of stages in the development of higher mental functions, one of them closely resembling the phenomenon of practical thinking revealed in the experiments of the Kharkovites.
The major theoretical disagreement between the Kharkovites position and Vygotsky’s was epitomized by Zinchenko’s statement that “social development cannot be reduced to the history of the development of culture.” While in Vygotsky’s theory, activity as a general explanatory principle finds its concretization in the specific, culturally bound types of semiotic mediation, in the doctrine of the Kharkovites, activity assumes a double role: as a general principle and as a concrete mechanism of mediation. However, in order to be socially meaningful, the concrete actions have to be connected in some way with human social and economic relations with reality. The task of elaborating this overall structure of activity was taken up by Leontiev.
The first sketch of Leontiev’s theory of psychological activity appeared in his Essays on the Development of the Mind (1947), which was followed by the very popular Problems of the Development of the Mind (1959/1982) and Activity, Consciousness, and Personality (1978). Leontiev suggested the following breakdown of activity— activity corresponding to a motive, action corresponding to a goal, and operation dependent upon conditions: “The main thing which distinguishes one activity from another, however, is the difference of their objects. It is exactly the object of an activity that gives it a determined direction. According to the terminology I have proposed, the object of an activity is its true motive.”
Entering human activity, its object loses its apparent naturalness and appears as an object of collective, social experience: “Consequently, it is the activity of others that provides an objective basis for the specific structure of individual activity. Historically, that is, in terms of its origin, the connection between motive and object of activity reflects objective social, rather than natural relations.” For example, food as a motive for human activity already presupposes a complex structure of the division of labor. Such a division provides a basis for differentiation of activities and actions: “The actions that realize activity are aroused by its motive but appear to be directed toward a goal…. For satisfying the need for food [one] must carry out actions that are not aimed directly at getting food. For example, the purpose of a given individual may be preparing equipment for fishing….” Motives thus belong to the socially structured reality of production and appropriation, while actions belong to the immediate reality of practical goals. “When a concrete process is taking place before us, external or internal, then from the point of its relation to motive, it appears as human activity, but when it is subordinated to purpose, then it appears as an action or accumulation of a chain of actions.” Psychologically, activity has no constituent elements other than actions. “If the actions that constitute activity are mentally subtracted from it, then absolutely nothing will be left of activity.” And yet activity is not an additive phenomenon: it is realized, but its overall social meaning cannot be devised from the individual actions.
At this point Leontiev’s concept of activity ran into serious theoretical trouble, which did not fail to catch the attention of his opponents, Sergei Rubinstein and his students. Which discussing human activity (Tätigkeit) in general, Leontiev used such categories of Marxist social philosophy as production, appropriation, objectivation, and disobjectivation. These categories apply to the social-historical subject, rather than to the psychological individual. At the same time, “actual relations with reality” were sought by Leontiev in the concrete practical actions and operations of the individual. The intermediate link between these two facets of activity－which Vygotsky identified as culture in general and the semiotic systems in particular－has been lost because of the rejection of Vygotsky’s position. Rubinstein, who noticed this gap in Leontiev’s theoretical schema, accused him of “illegitimate identification of the psychological problem of mastering operations with the social process of the disobjectivation of the social essence of Man.”
Rejecting semiotic mediation, and insisting on the dominant role of practical actions, the Kharkovites had obliged themselves to elaborate the connection between the philosophical categories of production and objectivation and the psychological category of action. Leontiev, however, was reluctant to provide such an elaboration, substituting for it a standard “sermon” on the alienation of activity under capitalism versus the free development of personality in socialist society. Moreover, when Leontiev made an attempt to outline the forms of human consciousness corresponding to activity, he chose to use the categories of meaning and sense, rather than those of internalized operations. In this way he unwittingly acknowledged the advantage of Vygotsky’s approach. This theoretical inconsistency also did not pass unnoticed by his critics, who claimed that “although the concept of object orientedness of the psyche aims at derivation of the specificity of psyche from the practical, and even the material, activity of society, actually it turns out that this practical activity…becomes identified as a system of society meanings….One important point remained, however, unnoticed here, namely, that although social modes of action do find their fixation in meanings, the latter represent the forms of social consciousness , and by no means the forms of social practice.”
Unfortunately, Rubinstein’s students made no distinction between Leontiev and Vygotsky, and their critiques remained mostly unheeded by those who chose to work in the framework of Vygotsky’s tradition. Moreover, this critique was often perceived as an assault on the cultural-historical theory as such.
3/18/2009
3/07/2009
Nessun Dorma - Pavarotti
---The Prince---
Nessun dorma, nessun dorma ...
Tu pure, o Principessa,
Nella tua fredda stanza,
Guardi le stelle
Che tremano d'amore
E di speranza.
Ma il mio mistero è chiuso in me,
Il nome mio nessun saprà, no, no,
Sulla tua bocca lo dirò
Quando la luce splenderà,
Ed il mio bacio scioglierà il silenzio
Che ti fa mia.
---Chorus---
Il nome suo nessun saprà
E noi dovrem, ahimè, morir.
---The Prince---
Dilegua, o notte!
Tramontate, stelle!
All'alba vincerò!
Vincerò! Vincerò!
Nessun Dorma - The 3 Tenors-Carreras-Domingo-Pavarotti
---The Prince---
Nessun dorma, nessun dorma ...
Tu pure, o Principessa,
Nella tua fredda stanza,
Guardi le stelle
Che tremano d'amore
E di speranza.
Ma il mio mistero è chiuso in me,
Il nome mio nessun saprà, no, no,
Sulla tua bocca lo dirò
Quando la luce splenderà,
Ed il mio bacio scioglierà il silenzio
Che ti fa mia.
---Chorus---
Il nome suo nessun saprà
E noi dovrem, ahimè, morir.
---The Prince---
Dilegua, o notte!
Tramontate, stelle!
All'alba vincerò!
Vincerò! Vincerò!
With IPA
---The Prince---
Nessun dorma, nessun dorma ...
nesun dorma nesun dorma
Tu pure, o Principessa,
tu pudre o pdrint∫ipesa
Nella tua fredda stanza,
nela tua fdreda sdandza
Guardi le stelle
guardi le stele
Che tremano d'amore
ke tdremano damodre
E di speranza.
e di spedrandza
Ma il mio mistero è chiuso in me,
ma il mio misdedro e kiuso in me
Il nome mio nessun saprà, no, no,
il nome mio mesun sapdra no no
Sulla tua bocca lo dirò
sula tua boka lo didro
Quando la luce splenderà,
kwuando la lut∫e splendedra
Ed il mio bacio scioglierà il silenzio.
ed il mio bat∫o ∫ogiedra il silentsio
Che ti fa mia.
ke ti fa mia
---Chorus---
Il nome suo nessun saprà
il nome suo nesun sapdra
E noi dovrem, ahimè, morir.
e noi dovdrem ahime modrir
---The Prince---
Dilegua, o notte!
dilegua o node
Tramontate, stelle!
tdramondade stele
All'alba vincerò!
alalba vint∫edro
Vincerò ! Vincerò !
vint∫edro vint∫edro
3/03/2009
Vygotsky's Works
Vygotsky’s Works
1933 (p.148-149)
“Introductory Lecture about Age-Psychology.” The Central House of Art Education of Children, Dec. 19, 1933. Archives of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute .Stenography, 34 pp.
“Dynamics of Mental Development of School Children in Connection with Education.” Report to the Meeting of the Department of Defectology of Bubnov Pedagogical Institute, Dec. 23,1933. In Mental Development of Children during Education by L.S.Vygotsky, pp.33-52. Moscow-Leningrad: Government Publishing House, 1935.
“Preschool Age.” Lecture, Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, Dec. 13-14, 1933. Private archives of L.S.Vygotsgy. Stenography, 15pp.
“Play and Its Role in the Psychological Development of the Child.” Lecture, Leingrad Pedagogical Institute, 1933. Problems of Psychology, 1966, no.6, pp. 62-76.
“Questions about the Dynamics of Development of the Intellect of the Normal and Abnormal Child.” Lecture, Bubnov Pedagogical Institute, Dec. 23, 1933. Private archives of L.S. Vygotsky. Stenography.
“Crisis of the First Year of Life.” Lecture, Leningrad Pedagogical Institute. Archives of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute. Stenography, 37pp.
“Critical Ages.” Lecture, Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, June 26, 1933. Archives of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute. Manuscript, 15 pp.
“The Negative Phase of Adolescence.” Lecture, Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, June 26, 1933. Archives of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute Manuscript, 17 pp.
“Study of Schoolwork in School Children.” Report to the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, Jan. 31, 1933. Private archives of L.S. Vygotsky. Stenography.
“Pedological Study of the Pedagogical Process.” Report to the Experimental Defectological Institute, March 17, 1933. In Mental Development of Children during Education by L.S.Vygotsky, pp.116-134. Moscow-Leningrad: Uchpedgiz, 1935.
“Adolescence.” Lecture, Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, June 25, 1933. Archives of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute. Stenography, 19pp.
“Pedology of Preschool Age.” Lecture, Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, Jan. 31, 1933. Archives of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute. Stenography, 16 pp.
Foreword to Difficult Children in Schoolwork by L.V. Zankov, M.S. Pevsner, and V.F.Shmidt. Moscow-Leningrad: Uchpedgiz, 1933.
“Problems of Age: Play.” Concluding speech to the Seminar of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, March 23, 1933. Archives of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute. Stenography, 39 pp.
“Problems of Development.” Lecture, Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, Nov. 27,1933. Archives of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute. Stenography, 17 pp.
“The Problem of Consciousness.” Report after the speech of A.R. Luria on Dec. 5 and 9, 1933. In Psychology of Grammar, pp.178-196. Moscow: Moscow State University, 1968.
“Development of Common Sense and Scientific Ideas during School Age.” Report to the Scientific Conference, Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, May 20, 1933. In Mental Development of Children during Education, pp.96-115. Moscow-Leningrad: Uchpedgiz, 1935.
“Study of Emotions.” Private archives of L.S.Vygotsky, 1933. Manuscript. 555 pp. Also “The Study of Emotions in the Light of Contemporary Psychoneurology.” Questions of Philosophy, 1970, no. 6, pp. 110-130. See also, “Two Directions in the Comprehension of the Nature of Emotions in Foreign Psychology in the beginning of the Twentieth Century.” Problems of Psychology, 1968, no.2, pp. 149-156.
1933 (p.148-149)
“Introductory Lecture about Age-Psychology.” The Central House of Art Education of Children, Dec. 19, 1933. Archives of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute .Stenography, 34 pp.
“Dynamics of Mental Development of School Children in Connection with Education.” Report to the Meeting of the Department of Defectology of Bubnov Pedagogical Institute, Dec. 23,1933. In Mental Development of Children during Education by L.S.Vygotsky, pp.33-52. Moscow-Leningrad: Government Publishing House, 1935.
“Preschool Age.” Lecture, Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, Dec. 13-14, 1933. Private archives of L.S.Vygotsgy. Stenography, 15pp.
“Play and Its Role in the Psychological Development of the Child.” Lecture, Leingrad Pedagogical Institute, 1933. Problems of Psychology, 1966, no.6, pp. 62-76.
“Questions about the Dynamics of Development of the Intellect of the Normal and Abnormal Child.” Lecture, Bubnov Pedagogical Institute, Dec. 23, 1933. Private archives of L.S. Vygotsky. Stenography.
“Crisis of the First Year of Life.” Lecture, Leningrad Pedagogical Institute. Archives of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute. Stenography, 37pp.
“Critical Ages.” Lecture, Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, June 26, 1933. Archives of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute. Manuscript, 15 pp.
“The Negative Phase of Adolescence.” Lecture, Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, June 26, 1933. Archives of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute Manuscript, 17 pp.
“Study of Schoolwork in School Children.” Report to the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, Jan. 31, 1933. Private archives of L.S. Vygotsky. Stenography.
“Pedological Study of the Pedagogical Process.” Report to the Experimental Defectological Institute, March 17, 1933. In Mental Development of Children during Education by L.S.Vygotsky, pp.116-134. Moscow-Leningrad: Uchpedgiz, 1935.
“Adolescence.” Lecture, Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, June 25, 1933. Archives of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute. Stenography, 19pp.
“Pedology of Preschool Age.” Lecture, Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, Jan. 31, 1933. Archives of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute. Stenography, 16 pp.
Foreword to Difficult Children in Schoolwork by L.V. Zankov, M.S. Pevsner, and V.F.Shmidt. Moscow-Leningrad: Uchpedgiz, 1933.
“Problems of Age: Play.” Concluding speech to the Seminar of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, March 23, 1933. Archives of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute. Stenography, 39 pp.
“Problems of Development.” Lecture, Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, Nov. 27,1933. Archives of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute. Stenography, 17 pp.
“The Problem of Consciousness.” Report after the speech of A.R. Luria on Dec. 5 and 9, 1933. In Psychology of Grammar, pp.178-196. Moscow: Moscow State University, 1968.
“Development of Common Sense and Scientific Ideas during School Age.” Report to the Scientific Conference, Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, May 20, 1933. In Mental Development of Children during Education, pp.96-115. Moscow-Leningrad: Uchpedgiz, 1935.
“Study of Emotions.” Private archives of L.S.Vygotsky, 1933. Manuscript. 555 pp. Also “The Study of Emotions in the Light of Contemporary Psychoneurology.” Questions of Philosophy, 1970, no. 6, pp. 110-130. See also, “Two Directions in the Comprehension of the Nature of Emotions in Foreign Psychology in the beginning of the Twentieth Century.” Problems of Psychology, 1968, no.2, pp. 149-156.
2/24/2009
音韻學作業
Phonology 音韻學
1. 語音 speech sounds
在語音學與音韻學中，語音一詞所指的是說話時所發出的聲音。語音是具體存在的物理現象。最小單位的語音片段稱為音素.
2. 語音資料庫 speech sounds corpus
包含語料,語音辨識,語音特徵等.
3. 語言分類 language typology
語言分類的方式有很多種,一種是根據語系.例如,以歐洲大陸而言,除了印歐語系之外,另一個主要的語系是烏拉語系.而亞非語系(Afro-Asiatic)語言則屬北非和中東的一大語系,包括希伯來語和阿拉伯等現代閃語(Semitic).漢藏語系(Sino-Tibetan)語系包括國語(Mandarin),各種方言,以及緬甸語和藏語.而大多數的非洲語言則屬Niger-Congo語系.另外,南島(Austronesian)語系則包括多達約九百多種語言,其涵蓋範圍西自非洲的馬達加斯加島,東至夏威夷群島.另一種分類語言的方式則是借助語言特性,而不考慮語系.每個語言都包含主語(S),賓語(O),動詞(V)的句子,以這三者在語言中的基本詞序來決定,則有六種可能的語言類型.
4. 語音處理器官 speech sound processing organs
分成兩類，第一類本身可以運動，語言學上叫作發音器官(Articulator)，包括下唇及舌頭，舌頭又分為舌尖、舌前、舌中、舌後。第二類不會運動，叫作發音點(Point of Articulation)，包括上唇、硬顎、軟顎、上齒槽、下齒槽、聲帶、聲門。
5. 音韻學經典著作 classics in phonology
(1) Carr, Philip (1993) Phonology. Macmillan.
(2) Kenstowicz, Michael (1994) Phonology in Generative Grammar.Blackwell.
(3) Goldsmith, John (1996) The Handbook of Phonological Theory.Blackwell.
(4) Spencer, Andrew (1996) Phonology: Theory and Description. Blackwell.
(5) Archangeli, Diana and D. Terrence Langendoen (1997) Optimality Theory. Blackwell.(6) Gussenhoven, Carlos and Haike Jacobs (1998) Understanding Phonology. Arnold/Oxford. (7) Roca, I., Johnson, W., & Roca, A. (1999). A Course in Phonology.
6. 音韻學家,音韻學派 phonologists, phonological schools
(1) phonologists
Baudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929)
Kruszewski, M. H. (1851-87) (KazanSchool)
Sweet, Henry (1845-1912)
Kruszewski, Mikol/aj (1851-1887)
Saussure, Ferdinand de (1857-1913)
Jones, Daniel (1881-1967)
Firth, J. R. (1890-1960, London School: Prosodic Phonology)
Trubetzkoj, Nikolaj S. (16. April, 1890-25 Juni, 1938)
Roman Jakobson (1896-1982) (Prague School of Phonology)
Hjelmslev, Louis (1899-1965, Copenhagen School)
William Dwight Whitney
Franz Boas
Edward Sapir
Leonard Bloomfield (American Structuralist Phonology)
Morris Halle
Fant, Gunnar
Noam Chomsky (Generative Phonology)
Donegan, P. J.
Stampe, D.
Vennemann, Theo
Hopper, J. B.
John Ohala
(2) phonological schools
Historical Phonology
Evolutionary Phonology
Kazan School
American Structuralist Phonology
Prague School of Phonology (1939)
Copenhagen School (1943)
London School: Prosodic Phonology (1946,1757)
Dependency Phonology (1950s,1986,1987)
Tagmemic Phonology(1987)
Sign Language Phonology (1960s,1995)
Stratificational Phonology (1960s)
Generative Phonology (1968)
Syllabic Phonology (1969,1995)
Government Phonology
Nonsegmental Phonology(1976)
Natural Phonology (1972,1979)
Natural Generative Phonology (1979)
Natural Equational Phonology(1981)
Categorial Phonology (1960s,1981)
CV Phonology (1983)
Discourse phonological (1984)
Particle Phonology (1984)
Atomic Phonology (1985)
Lexical Phonology (1985)
Declarative Phonology (1986)
Declarative Lexical Phonology
Prosodic Phonology (1986)
Autosegmental Phonology (1976,1989)
Three Dimensional Phonology (1980)
Multidimensional Phonology
Metrical Phonology (1982,1989)
Moraic Phonology (1983,1991)
Dynamic Phonology (1985)
Experimental Phonology (1986)
Laboratory Phonology(1990)
Formal Phonology (1992)
Constraint Based Phonology (1992)
Attribute Value Phonology (1992)
Cognitive Phonology (1993)
Harmonic Phonology (1993)
Optimality Phonology (1993,1997,1999)
Grounded Phonology(1994)
Computational Phonology (1995)
Intonational Phonology (1996)
Functional Phonology(1998)
Second Language Phonology(2001)
Phonetically Based Phonology (2004)
7. 音韻系統實證 empirical verification of phonological system
包含失語症,語言障礙,語言治療,語言習得等等.
8. 應用音韻學 applied phonology
sound change, phonological hierarchy, free variation, distinctive features, intonation and tone ,pitch、accent、substitution, assimilation、dissimilation.
1. 語音 speech sounds
在語音學與音韻學中，語音一詞所指的是說話時所發出的聲音。語音是具體存在的物理現象。最小單位的語音片段稱為音素.
2. 語音資料庫 speech sounds corpus
包含語料,語音辨識,語音特徵等.
3. 語言分類 language typology
語言分類的方式有很多種,一種是根據語系.例如,以歐洲大陸而言,除了印歐語系之外,另一個主要的語系是烏拉語系.而亞非語系(Afro-Asiatic)語言則屬北非和中東的一大語系,包括希伯來語和阿拉伯等現代閃語(Semitic).漢藏語系(Sino-Tibetan)語系包括國語(Mandarin),各種方言,以及緬甸語和藏語.而大多數的非洲語言則屬Niger-Congo語系.另外,南島(Austronesian)語系則包括多達約九百多種語言,其涵蓋範圍西自非洲的馬達加斯加島,東至夏威夷群島.另一種分類語言的方式則是借助語言特性,而不考慮語系.每個語言都包含主語(S),賓語(O),動詞(V)的句子,以這三者在語言中的基本詞序來決定,則有六種可能的語言類型.
4. 語音處理器官 speech sound processing organs
分成兩類，第一類本身可以運動，語言學上叫作發音器官(Articulator)，包括下唇及舌頭，舌頭又分為舌尖、舌前、舌中、舌後。第二類不會運動，叫作發音點(Point of Articulation)，包括上唇、硬顎、軟顎、上齒槽、下齒槽、聲帶、聲門。
5. 音韻學經典著作 classics in phonology
(1) Carr, Philip (1993) Phonology. Macmillan.
(2) Kenstowicz, Michael (1994) Phonology in Generative Grammar.Blackwell.
(3) Goldsmith, John (1996) The Handbook of Phonological Theory.Blackwell.
(4) Spencer, Andrew (1996) Phonology: Theory and Description. Blackwell.
(5) Archangeli, Diana and D. Terrence Langendoen (1997) Optimality Theory. Blackwell.(6) Gussenhoven, Carlos and Haike Jacobs (1998) Understanding Phonology. Arnold/Oxford. (7) Roca, I., Johnson, W., & Roca, A. (1999). A Course in Phonology.
6. 音韻學家,音韻學派 phonologists, phonological schools
(1) phonologists
Baudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929)
Kruszewski, M. H. (1851-87) (KazanSchool)
Sweet, Henry (1845-1912)
Kruszewski, Mikol/aj (1851-1887)
Saussure, Ferdinand de (1857-1913)
Jones, Daniel (1881-1967)
Firth, J. R. (1890-1960, London School: Prosodic Phonology)
Trubetzkoj, Nikolaj S. (16. April, 1890-25 Juni, 1938)
Roman Jakobson (1896-1982) (Prague School of Phonology)
Hjelmslev, Louis (1899-1965, Copenhagen School)
William Dwight Whitney
Franz Boas
Edward Sapir
Leonard Bloomfield (American Structuralist Phonology)
Morris Halle
Fant, Gunnar
Noam Chomsky (Generative Phonology)
Donegan, P. J.
Stampe, D.
Vennemann, Theo
Hopper, J. B.
John Ohala
(2) phonological schools
Historical Phonology
Evolutionary Phonology
Kazan School
American Structuralist Phonology
Prague School of Phonology (1939)
Copenhagen School (1943)
London School: Prosodic Phonology (1946,1757)
Dependency Phonology (1950s,1986,1987)
Tagmemic Phonology(1987)
Sign Language Phonology (1960s,1995)
Stratificational Phonology (1960s)
Generative Phonology (1968)
Syllabic Phonology (1969,1995)
Government Phonology
Nonsegmental Phonology(1976)
Natural Phonology (1972,1979)
Natural Generative Phonology (1979)
Natural Equational Phonology(1981)
Categorial Phonology (1960s,1981)
CV Phonology (1983)
Discourse phonological (1984)
Particle Phonology (1984)
Atomic Phonology (1985)
Lexical Phonology (1985)
Declarative Phonology (1986)
Declarative Lexical Phonology
Prosodic Phonology (1986)
Autosegmental Phonology (1976,1989)
Three Dimensional Phonology (1980)
Multidimensional Phonology
Metrical Phonology (1982,1989)
Moraic Phonology (1983,1991)
Dynamic Phonology (1985)
Experimental Phonology (1986)
Laboratory Phonology(1990)
Formal Phonology (1992)
Constraint Based Phonology (1992)
Attribute Value Phonology (1992)
Cognitive Phonology (1993)
Harmonic Phonology (1993)
Optimality Phonology (1993,1997,1999)
Grounded Phonology(1994)
Computational Phonology (1995)
Intonational Phonology (1996)
Functional Phonology(1998)
Second Language Phonology(2001)
Phonetically Based Phonology (2004)
7. 音韻系統實證 empirical verification of phonological system
包含失語症,語言障礙,語言治療,語言習得等等.
8. 應用音韻學 applied phonology
sound change, phonological hierarchy, free variation, distinctive features, intonation and tone ,pitch、accent、substitution, assimilation、dissimilation.
2/01/2009
LB 038-042 T
LB 038-042 T
A most important aspect of facial anatomy is the shape and nature of our cheeks and their relation to the size of the mouth. The architectural peculiarities of man’s skull and jaw brought about modifications in the configuration of the cheeks. They cover most of the molars during all comfortable movements of the mouth and under no circumstances are we able to bare all our teeth. In Fig. 2.4 the anatomical layers of the facial muscles are well illustrated. Once the superficial modiolar muscles are removed, the extremely sturdy muscles of the cheeks, the buccinator, may be seen, and Fig. 2.5 the insertion of this muscle in the jaws demonstrates the enclosing nature of the soft tissues around the gap between the jaws.
臉部解剖學上的結構,最重要的部分是有關於它的形狀,臉頰的特性,以及它們和口腔大小之間的關係.人類頭骨,颌骨結構的特殊性造成了臉頰結構上的修正.有關口腔所有的舒適活動中,它們涵蓋了大部分的臼齒, 並且讓我們可以暴露我們所有的牙齒.在圖2.4中,有關臉部肌肉在解剖學上構造的層次可以看得很清楚.當外表像蜗的軸肌肉在移動時,臉頰最結實的肌肉,頰肌,可能會顯現出來.在圖2.5中,颌骨肌肉的附著點顯示了包含在颌骨間隙中的軟組織的特性.
The topography described so far is relevant to the production of the following speech sounds: the relatively small mouth and the highly mobile, powerful lips allow instantaneous building up of air pressure followed by sudden release employed in the labial stops p and b, said to be one of the earliest sounds produced by the children. If the release of the lips is less sudden and closure sustained in the presence of vocalization, the sound m is produced. The intricate muscular anatomy around and in the corners of the mouth also comes regularly into play during the production of all vowels and labio-dentals such as f, v, w, and wh.
局部解剖學至今描述了有關以下聲音的產生:在發唇塞音p,b時,孩童最容易發的音之一,是小唇和活動性最強的唇部允許瞬間氣壓的增強,使得唇部突發性的張開所產生的.如果唇部的開闔沒有這麼突然,並承受了母音化的發音,則m的聲音就產生了.肌肉在解剖上的複雜性和口腔的角度也使得在發母音和脣齒音,例如f, v, w和wh形成了規律性.
(2) Topographical Anatomy of Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Hypopharynx
口腔,咽頭,咽喉的局部解剖學
We must now consider the general configuration of the internal organs that are effective during speech and their anatomical relationship to one another.
我們現在必須考慮到的是那些在發音上會造成影響的器官其內部的一般性排列和他們在解剖學上的關係.
Man’s skull deviates from the skull of other primates in several respects. Most of the deviations may be attributed to either of two major factors: (1) the increase in volume of the brain and (2) the change in posture and the concomittant shift of the center of gravity of the head. The geometic transformations shown in Fig. 2.6 illustrate these points.
造成人類的頭骨和其他靈長類的不同之處在於以下兩點主要的原因.(1)腦容量的增加.(2)由於頭部地心引力的影響造成了姿勢的變化.在幾何學上的改變,圖2.6說明了這個論點.
The changes that have taken place affect the entire configuration of the sound-producing structures. Thus the internal geometry of all resonating chambers is altered despite the fact that all bones, muscles, and other soft tissues have homologues among higher primates. Figures 2.7 to 2.11 show some of the alterations, although the exact shape of the tongue and soft palate during lifetime cannot be inferred from these photographs because of fixation artifacts ( due particularly to postmortem shrinkage of interstitial substances). Nevertheless, it is clear that the radio of height, length, and width of the oral cavity is different in man from that of his closest of skin and there must be concomitant shifts in the relative position, suspension, and attachment of the tongue.
改變的產生影響了整個發音結構上的配置.因此,使得所有共鳴腔在內部幾何學上產生改變.儘管所有的骨頭,肌肉,和其他軟組織在較高層次的靈長類中是同源的.圖2.7到2.11顯示了一些改變,雖然舌頭,軟顎正確的外形終生沒有辦法從這些由固定的人為構造圖片來推論.(由於驗屍的特殊性使得其中的物質縮小了.)儘管如此,人類口腔的長寬高比例明顯的和其親屬有所不同.在舌頭停頓,其附屬物在相關位置上必定存在著相異之處.
Also interesting is the position and orientation of the incisors relative to tip of tongue and oral cavity. In apes and many monkeys the mandible forms a “shelf” that is anterior to the tongue tip with the incisors pointing outward; when the mouth is closed in the orangutan and gorilla, the upper and lower incisors meet at an angle. Man, on the other hand, gives the impression of having the incisors and the bones in which they are imbedded pushed into the oral cavity. Thus flattens out the angle formed by the incisors when the mouth is closed.
另外,有趣的是門齒的位置和其適應性,以及舌尖和口腔之間的相關性.在猿類以及許多猴類中,下颌骨形成一個空架狀,使得門齒和舌尖前面往外;當猩猩和大猩猩將嘴巴闔上時,較高和較低的門齒會形成一個角度.人類,在另外一方面,其門齒和骨骼則是在口腔中.當嘴巴閉起來的時候,這個門齒的角度則會消失.
A most important aspect of facial anatomy is the shape and nature of our cheeks and their relation to the size of the mouth. The architectural peculiarities of man’s skull and jaw brought about modifications in the configuration of the cheeks. They cover most of the molars during all comfortable movements of the mouth and under no circumstances are we able to bare all our teeth. In Fig. 2.4 the anatomical layers of the facial muscles are well illustrated. Once the superficial modiolar muscles are removed, the extremely sturdy muscles of the cheeks, the buccinator, may be seen, and Fig. 2.5 the insertion of this muscle in the jaws demonstrates the enclosing nature of the soft tissues around the gap between the jaws.
臉部解剖學上的結構,最重要的部分是有關於它的形狀,臉頰的特性,以及它們和口腔大小之間的關係.人類頭骨,颌骨結構的特殊性造成了臉頰結構上的修正.有關口腔所有的舒適活動中,它們涵蓋了大部分的臼齒, 並且讓我們可以暴露我們所有的牙齒.在圖2.4中,有關臉部肌肉在解剖學上構造的層次可以看得很清楚.當外表像蜗的軸肌肉在移動時,臉頰最結實的肌肉,頰肌,可能會顯現出來.在圖2.5中,颌骨肌肉的附著點顯示了包含在颌骨間隙中的軟組織的特性.
The topography described so far is relevant to the production of the following speech sounds: the relatively small mouth and the highly mobile, powerful lips allow instantaneous building up of air pressure followed by sudden release employed in the labial stops p and b, said to be one of the earliest sounds produced by the children. If the release of the lips is less sudden and closure sustained in the presence of vocalization, the sound m is produced. The intricate muscular anatomy around and in the corners of the mouth also comes regularly into play during the production of all vowels and labio-dentals such as f, v, w, and wh.
局部解剖學至今描述了有關以下聲音的產生:在發唇塞音p,b時,孩童最容易發的音之一,是小唇和活動性最強的唇部允許瞬間氣壓的增強,使得唇部突發性的張開所產生的.如果唇部的開闔沒有這麼突然,並承受了母音化的發音,則m的聲音就產生了.肌肉在解剖上的複雜性和口腔的角度也使得在發母音和脣齒音,例如f, v, w和wh形成了規律性.
(2) Topographical Anatomy of Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Hypopharynx
口腔,咽頭,咽喉的局部解剖學
We must now consider the general configuration of the internal organs that are effective during speech and their anatomical relationship to one another.
我們現在必須考慮到的是那些在發音上會造成影響的器官其內部的一般性排列和他們在解剖學上的關係.
Man’s skull deviates from the skull of other primates in several respects. Most of the deviations may be attributed to either of two major factors: (1) the increase in volume of the brain and (2) the change in posture and the concomittant shift of the center of gravity of the head. The geometic transformations shown in Fig. 2.6 illustrate these points.
造成人類的頭骨和其他靈長類的不同之處在於以下兩點主要的原因.(1)腦容量的增加.(2)由於頭部地心引力的影響造成了姿勢的變化.在幾何學上的改變,圖2.6說明了這個論點.
The changes that have taken place affect the entire configuration of the sound-producing structures. Thus the internal geometry of all resonating chambers is altered despite the fact that all bones, muscles, and other soft tissues have homologues among higher primates. Figures 2.7 to 2.11 show some of the alterations, although the exact shape of the tongue and soft palate during lifetime cannot be inferred from these photographs because of fixation artifacts ( due particularly to postmortem shrinkage of interstitial substances). Nevertheless, it is clear that the radio of height, length, and width of the oral cavity is different in man from that of his closest of skin and there must be concomitant shifts in the relative position, suspension, and attachment of the tongue.
改變的產生影響了整個發音結構上的配置.因此,使得所有共鳴腔在內部幾何學上產生改變.儘管所有的骨頭,肌肉,和其他軟組織在較高層次的靈長類中是同源的.圖2.7到2.11顯示了一些改變,雖然舌頭,軟顎正確的外形終生沒有辦法從這些由固定的人為構造圖片來推論.(由於驗屍的特殊性使得其中的物質縮小了.)儘管如此,人類口腔的長寬高比例明顯的和其親屬有所不同.在舌頭停頓,其附屬物在相關位置上必定存在著相異之處.
Also interesting is the position and orientation of the incisors relative to tip of tongue and oral cavity. In apes and many monkeys the mandible forms a “shelf” that is anterior to the tongue tip with the incisors pointing outward; when the mouth is closed in the orangutan and gorilla, the upper and lower incisors meet at an angle. Man, on the other hand, gives the impression of having the incisors and the bones in which they are imbedded pushed into the oral cavity. Thus flattens out the angle formed by the incisors when the mouth is closed.
另外,有趣的是門齒的位置和其適應性,以及舌尖和口腔之間的相關性.在猿類以及許多猴類中,下颌骨形成一個空架狀,使得門齒和舌尖前面往外;當猩猩和大猩猩將嘴巴闔上時,較高和較低的門齒會形成一個角度.人類,在另外一方面,其門齒和骨骼則是在口腔中.當嘴巴閉起來的時候,這個門齒的角度則會消失.
1/14/2009
LB 107-110T
Ⅴ. THE PROBLEM OF THE ORGANIZATION PRICIPLE: RHYTHM
The production of speech and the understanding of language may be sustained for several hours without any interruptions longer than a few minutes. Within one minute of discourse as many as 10 to 15 thousand neuromuscular events occur. The facility for production or reproduction of this multitude of overlapping and closely timed activities cannot possibly have been acquired by a simple rote-learning procedure or by any other direct “stamping in” method (Miller, Galanter. and Pribram, 1960). There must be some organizing principle that underlies the perception of speech and language as well as the intricacies of timing and ordering during production. What is that general, organizing principle? Lashley, perceptive also in this respect, proposed a rhythmic phenomenon as an explanatory construct. He was, however, vague and had no empirical evidence to back up this working hypothesis. A similar solution suggests itself for reasons quiet unsuspected by Lashley.
語音和語言認知可以維持好幾個小時而不被打斷.在一分鐘的談話中,有一萬到一萬五千個神經系統的肌肉在運作.語音的流暢或是大部分重覆的部分和動作並沒有辦法運用簡單的機械式的方式呈現.當中必然存在著一些強調語言知覺和時間以及語音音序的器官組織原則.什麼是普遍的組織原則?Lashley認為,知覺作用也在其中.他提出旋律的現象和有助於解釋的構成理論.然而,他卻模糊不清,也並沒有提供根據觀察之後所得到的證據來支持其假說.而另一個相關的解決方式卻無法得到Lashley的認同.
The sequence of speech sounds that constitute a string of words is a sound pattern somewhat analogous to a mosaic; the latter is put together stone after stone, yet the picture as a whole must have come into being in the artist’s mind before he began to lay down the pieces. In the progress of his work, he may put down three contiguous stones, each of which may in the end contribute to the same or to unrelated pictorial units. When we talk about visual patterns we consider only spatial dimensions, disregarding the dimension of time. Under most circumstances, time does seem to be irrelevant. Yet, physiological processes do have a temporal dimension, and even in the process of seeing, which strikes us as taking place instantaneously, time plays a role. The identification of such simple figures as triangles and circles requires time and consequently, requires temporal integration in the central nervous system.
所謂聲音的模式,是由語音的連續性構成了一串文字.有點類似馬賽克磚.馬賽克磚是將石頭一個一個排列整齊,在整個作品完成之前,作者必須先在腦中構思.而在他製作的過程中,他可能會先將相鄰的三塊石頭排列在一起,每一塊石頭最終都是為了要能完成作品.當我們討論到視覺的模式,我們所考慮到的只有空間的範圍,而不討論時間.而在視覺的過程中,當我們看到一件突發事件.時間則扮演著重要的角色.例如簡單的圖像,三角形或是圓形的證明,需要時間來證明.因此,中樞神經系統則需要時間的統整.
In sound patterns, the entire configuration is in the realm of time and the problem then becomes: How does pattern or order in time differ from randomness or disorder in time. What is it that enables us to recognize and to reproduce a time pattern – any time pattern?
在聲音的模式中.聲音完整的配置和排列會產生問題:在時間上,隨機性和失序性在模式或者是秩序上有何不同?為何能讓我們分辨並且去重新製造一個時間的模式—任何時間的模式?
In music it is well-known that it is possible to recognize melodies by finger tapping, or even head nodding; and after listening to ten seconds or more of finger tapping, we can discriminate fairly well between random tapping and patterned tapping. Behaviorally, patterned tapping can be memorized and is recognizable and reproducible; random tapping is not. The essential nature of a time pattern is an underlying pulse or beat. In the extreme case of order in time, the simplest pattern is the unadulterated pulse such as the tick-tock of a metronome. We can complicate this simple pattern by temporal modulation such as skipping a beat regularly or introducing additional taps between beats where those extra taps must occur at fractional periods of the time unit. The underlying pulse is the carrier on which the rhythmic pattern can be “fastened.” It is its indispensable ingredient in much the same way as a figure may only be recognized against a ground. Notice that of all the information contained in a melody none is as indispensable for recognition as that concerning time. We may eliminate variations in pitch, loudness, or timbre and still recognize the melody, but if we destroy the internal temporal relationships without distorting the other variables, the melody becomes at once unrecognizable (cf. also Sachs.1953).
在音樂中,大家都知道可以用拍手或者是點頭來分別出旋律;在聽完十秒或更多一點的拍手之後,我們可以非常清楚地區分出是隨機性的拍手或者是具有模仿性的拍手.具有模仿性的拍手可以被記憶,區別,並且被重覆.而隨機性的拍手則沒有辦法.最主要的原因是因為時間的模式強調拍子或者是連續性的拍打.在時間秩序的極端例子當中,最簡單的模式就像是節拍器,以時鐘式的擺動正確地表示出曲子拍子的器具.我們會被這樣簡單的模式所混淆是因為對於時間的調整,像是在拍子和拍子中間跳過一拍或者是多加一拍,這樣會造成在一個完整的時間單位中製造一些破碎的片段.特別被強調的拍子,就像是一個載體,可以使旋律的模式固定.要注意的是,任何一個有關於旋律的訊息都是應該注意的.我們或許會忽略拍子或聲音或音質的變化,仍然能辨別出旋律,但假使我們破壞了其中和時間的關聯,使其他的變因變形,則旋律就會無法辨別.
We have been talking here primarily of sound patterns. But our observations are actually applicable to all temporal patterns whether they are perceived through our ears, our eyes, our skin, or our sense of proprioception. In any medium, temporal pattern means a carrier pulse with modulations. Let us call the carrier pulse simply the rhythm.
我們在這裡已經討論了基本的聲音模式.但是我們的觀察要能確切地適用於所有的時間模式,不論是經由我們的耳朵,眼睛,或者是皮膚所感覺到的.在任何情形之下,時間模式是指可以調整拍子的載體,就讓我們簡稱為節奏.
If speech is a patterned temporal phenomenon, and if such phenomena are based on underlying rhythms, is articulation rhythmic?
如果講話是模仿時間現象,假使這種現象主要是以強調節奏為主,那麼發音是有節奏的嗎?
(1) The Rhythm Nature of Articulation
A rhythm may be marked by equidistant pulses or by simple oscillations. A special
case of the latter is the periodic alternation between two states, say sleep and wakefulness, or facilitation and inhibition. The rhythm underlying speech seems to be based on rhythmic alternations between states although we cannot yet say what the origin or nature of these states might be. Because of our ignorance of the true physiological basis of these states, we must be content with thinking of them as purely theoretical constructs. Let us say they are states of initiation and execution of motor patterns (or cycles of activation and inhibition).
節奏可以用平行的節拍或者是簡單的擺動來表示.對於後者,存在著一個特別的情況,以週期性的交互作用存在在兩種不同的狀態之間,休眠和非休眠,或者是促進和壓抑.強調講話的節奏似乎是在這兩種不同的狀態下交互作用.雖然,我們現在還不能了解這些狀態的開端和本質為何.因為我們對於這些狀態在生理學基礎上的無知,我們必須要樂意地思考其開端以及原動模式的演奏技巧.(或者是活動和阻礙的週期)
An analogy might illustrate the point. Take once more the drummimg of our fingers upon a table top. We can make the taps follow one another in rapid succession and with practice we may learn to tap without introduction a longer pause or louder tap at the time we start with the small finger again. Nevertheless, the tapping is organized in terms of a single motor pattern of the hand; for every four taps we have to repeat that pattern. If we tap simultaneously with both hands we have two such pattern going on at the same time, and the individual taps from the right and the left hand will intermingle in their temporal sequence. Ordinarily we can hear the tapping rhythm (that is, the grouping by fours), but in some cases the rhythm may no longer be recognizable. However, even in these cases, there are statistical means by which the underlying rhythmicity could be demonstrated. Each motor pattern is somewhat similar to fundamental motor patterns that underlie speech, probably corresponding to syllables.
用類比的方式來說明這個觀念.我們在桌面上用手打鼓.我們可以一個接著一個連續地打拍子.在練習的時候,我們可以不用製造出太長或者是太大聲的拍子.尤其是當我們重新用小拇指練習的時候.雖然拍子是由一個一個手的原動模式所組成的,但我們仍能重覆一個四拍的節奏.如果我們同時用左右兩手,則左右手各個拍子會融合於他們的時間的連續性當中.正常情況,我們可以聽到拍子的節奏(四個一拍).但有些情況之下節奏可能無法辨識.然而,即使如此,那些節奏仍可用統計的方式來證實.每個原動模式多少都和那些已發音或者是相當於以音節為基礎的基礎原動模式有相類似之處.
Let us hypothesize that there is a basic periodicity of approximately six cycles per second.* Since we are not dealing with a mechanical device, we must expect some variations within and among individuals. It is, therefore, safer to hypothesize a rate of 6 +/- 1 per second. Thus, one-sixth of a second is taken to be a time unit in the programming of motor-speech patterns. With this assumption, a great variety of phenomena may be explained. The basic facts pertaining to them are well-established, but so far individual, unrelated explanations have been offered for each of them. A single hypothesis concerning an underlying rhythm brings them all together. We shall discuss each under a separate heading.
讓我們假設有一個大約以每秒為六個循環的基礎週期.因為我們並沒有使用機械器材,我們必須假設會有一些變量在其中.所以,比較安全的情況是假設平均每秒為6+/-1的頻率為單位.如此,1/6秒就視為原動發音模式的時間單位.在這個假設之下,多種不同的現象可以得到解釋.附屬於這些現象的基礎事實以完善建構.但對於個別,非相關性的解釋,仍相互挑戰中.有個和節奏相關的假說涉及其中.我們應該分節來加以進行討論.
(a) Delayed Feedback. Normally we hear our voice at practically the same time as it is produced. Speech may be seriously disrupted if a delay is artificially introduced between the time we actually speak and the time the corresponding sounds reach our ears. This phenomenon is often called the Lee effect. J. W. Black (1951) studied the relationship between the length of the delay and the degree of speech interference. He measured the latter in terms of the time it took subjects to read certain test material. In Fig.317 this variable is plotted as a function of the delay time. It appears that there is a critical delay that maximizes interference. The greatest interference occurs with a delay of about 180 msec(2/11 sec.). The curve found by Black is more or less what we would expect from the rhythm hypothesis.
* I am indebted to A. W. F. Huggins for valuable regarding the following paragraphs.
(a)延遲反應.通常我們聽到自己的聲音實際上就是聲音製造出來的時間點.如果延遲現象是刻意製造在我們實際說話和聲音進入到我們的耳朵之間,則語音有可能會變成片斷的.這種現象通常稱為李氏現象.J.W.Black(1951)研究延遲現象的長度和語音干擾的程度,他以有提到主詞的時間點測量後者,顯示出某些測試內容.在圖3.17以延遲時間的作用製成圖表,顯示出干擾到達最大限度的關鍵延遲現象.最大的干擾發生在180msec(2/11sec)中.而Black所發現的曲線我們多少是可以從有關節奏的假說中預知到的.
The production of speech and the understanding of language may be sustained for several hours without any interruptions longer than a few minutes. Within one minute of discourse as many as 10 to 15 thousand neuromuscular events occur. The facility for production or reproduction of this multitude of overlapping and closely timed activities cannot possibly have been acquired by a simple rote-learning procedure or by any other direct “stamping in” method (Miller, Galanter. and Pribram, 1960). There must be some organizing principle that underlies the perception of speech and language as well as the intricacies of timing and ordering during production. What is that general, organizing principle? Lashley, perceptive also in this respect, proposed a rhythmic phenomenon as an explanatory construct. He was, however, vague and had no empirical evidence to back up this working hypothesis. A similar solution suggests itself for reasons quiet unsuspected by Lashley.
語音和語言認知可以維持好幾個小時而不被打斷.在一分鐘的談話中,有一萬到一萬五千個神經系統的肌肉在運作.語音的流暢或是大部分重覆的部分和動作並沒有辦法運用簡單的機械式的方式呈現.當中必然存在著一些強調語言知覺和時間以及語音音序的器官組織原則.什麼是普遍的組織原則?Lashley認為,知覺作用也在其中.他提出旋律的現象和有助於解釋的構成理論.然而,他卻模糊不清,也並沒有提供根據觀察之後所得到的證據來支持其假說.而另一個相關的解決方式卻無法得到Lashley的認同.
The sequence of speech sounds that constitute a string of words is a sound pattern somewhat analogous to a mosaic; the latter is put together stone after stone, yet the picture as a whole must have come into being in the artist’s mind before he began to lay down the pieces. In the progress of his work, he may put down three contiguous stones, each of which may in the end contribute to the same or to unrelated pictorial units. When we talk about visual patterns we consider only spatial dimensions, disregarding the dimension of time. Under most circumstances, time does seem to be irrelevant. Yet, physiological processes do have a temporal dimension, and even in the process of seeing, which strikes us as taking place instantaneously, time plays a role. The identification of such simple figures as triangles and circles requires time and consequently, requires temporal integration in the central nervous system.
所謂聲音的模式,是由語音的連續性構成了一串文字.有點類似馬賽克磚.馬賽克磚是將石頭一個一個排列整齊,在整個作品完成之前,作者必須先在腦中構思.而在他製作的過程中,他可能會先將相鄰的三塊石頭排列在一起,每一塊石頭最終都是為了要能完成作品.當我們討論到視覺的模式,我們所考慮到的只有空間的範圍,而不討論時間.而在視覺的過程中,當我們看到一件突發事件.時間則扮演著重要的角色.例如簡單的圖像,三角形或是圓形的證明,需要時間來證明.因此,中樞神經系統則需要時間的統整.
In sound patterns, the entire configuration is in the realm of time and the problem then becomes: How does pattern or order in time differ from randomness or disorder in time. What is it that enables us to recognize and to reproduce a time pattern – any time pattern?
在聲音的模式中.聲音完整的配置和排列會產生問題:在時間上,隨機性和失序性在模式或者是秩序上有何不同?為何能讓我們分辨並且去重新製造一個時間的模式—任何時間的模式?
In music it is well-known that it is possible to recognize melodies by finger tapping, or even head nodding; and after listening to ten seconds or more of finger tapping, we can discriminate fairly well between random tapping and patterned tapping. Behaviorally, patterned tapping can be memorized and is recognizable and reproducible; random tapping is not. The essential nature of a time pattern is an underlying pulse or beat. In the extreme case of order in time, the simplest pattern is the unadulterated pulse such as the tick-tock of a metronome. We can complicate this simple pattern by temporal modulation such as skipping a beat regularly or introducing additional taps between beats where those extra taps must occur at fractional periods of the time unit. The underlying pulse is the carrier on which the rhythmic pattern can be “fastened.” It is its indispensable ingredient in much the same way as a figure may only be recognized against a ground. Notice that of all the information contained in a melody none is as indispensable for recognition as that concerning time. We may eliminate variations in pitch, loudness, or timbre and still recognize the melody, but if we destroy the internal temporal relationships without distorting the other variables, the melody becomes at once unrecognizable (cf. also Sachs.1953).
在音樂中,大家都知道可以用拍手或者是點頭來分別出旋律;在聽完十秒或更多一點的拍手之後,我們可以非常清楚地區分出是隨機性的拍手或者是具有模仿性的拍手.具有模仿性的拍手可以被記憶,區別,並且被重覆.而隨機性的拍手則沒有辦法.最主要的原因是因為時間的模式強調拍子或者是連續性的拍打.在時間秩序的極端例子當中,最簡單的模式就像是節拍器,以時鐘式的擺動正確地表示出曲子拍子的器具.我們會被這樣簡單的模式所混淆是因為對於時間的調整,像是在拍子和拍子中間跳過一拍或者是多加一拍,這樣會造成在一個完整的時間單位中製造一些破碎的片段.特別被強調的拍子,就像是一個載體,可以使旋律的模式固定.要注意的是,任何一個有關於旋律的訊息都是應該注意的.我們或許會忽略拍子或聲音或音質的變化,仍然能辨別出旋律,但假使我們破壞了其中和時間的關聯,使其他的變因變形,則旋律就會無法辨別.
We have been talking here primarily of sound patterns. But our observations are actually applicable to all temporal patterns whether they are perceived through our ears, our eyes, our skin, or our sense of proprioception. In any medium, temporal pattern means a carrier pulse with modulations. Let us call the carrier pulse simply the rhythm.
我們在這裡已經討論了基本的聲音模式.但是我們的觀察要能確切地適用於所有的時間模式,不論是經由我們的耳朵,眼睛,或者是皮膚所感覺到的.在任何情形之下,時間模式是指可以調整拍子的載體,就讓我們簡稱為節奏.
If speech is a patterned temporal phenomenon, and if such phenomena are based on underlying rhythms, is articulation rhythmic?
如果講話是模仿時間現象,假使這種現象主要是以強調節奏為主,那麼發音是有節奏的嗎?
(1) The Rhythm Nature of Articulation
A rhythm may be marked by equidistant pulses or by simple oscillations. A special
case of the latter is the periodic alternation between two states, say sleep and wakefulness, or facilitation and inhibition. The rhythm underlying speech seems to be based on rhythmic alternations between states although we cannot yet say what the origin or nature of these states might be. Because of our ignorance of the true physiological basis of these states, we must be content with thinking of them as purely theoretical constructs. Let us say they are states of initiation and execution of motor patterns (or cycles of activation and inhibition).
節奏可以用平行的節拍或者是簡單的擺動來表示.對於後者,存在著一個特別的情況,以週期性的交互作用存在在兩種不同的狀態之間,休眠和非休眠,或者是促進和壓抑.強調講話的節奏似乎是在這兩種不同的狀態下交互作用.雖然,我們現在還不能了解這些狀態的開端和本質為何.因為我們對於這些狀態在生理學基礎上的無知,我們必須要樂意地思考其開端以及原動模式的演奏技巧.(或者是活動和阻礙的週期)
An analogy might illustrate the point. Take once more the drummimg of our fingers upon a table top. We can make the taps follow one another in rapid succession and with practice we may learn to tap without introduction a longer pause or louder tap at the time we start with the small finger again. Nevertheless, the tapping is organized in terms of a single motor pattern of the hand; for every four taps we have to repeat that pattern. If we tap simultaneously with both hands we have two such pattern going on at the same time, and the individual taps from the right and the left hand will intermingle in their temporal sequence. Ordinarily we can hear the tapping rhythm (that is, the grouping by fours), but in some cases the rhythm may no longer be recognizable. However, even in these cases, there are statistical means by which the underlying rhythmicity could be demonstrated. Each motor pattern is somewhat similar to fundamental motor patterns that underlie speech, probably corresponding to syllables.
用類比的方式來說明這個觀念.我們在桌面上用手打鼓.我們可以一個接著一個連續地打拍子.在練習的時候,我們可以不用製造出太長或者是太大聲的拍子.尤其是當我們重新用小拇指練習的時候.雖然拍子是由一個一個手的原動模式所組成的,但我們仍能重覆一個四拍的節奏.如果我們同時用左右兩手,則左右手各個拍子會融合於他們的時間的連續性當中.正常情況,我們可以聽到拍子的節奏(四個一拍).但有些情況之下節奏可能無法辨識.然而,即使如此,那些節奏仍可用統計的方式來證實.每個原動模式多少都和那些已發音或者是相當於以音節為基礎的基礎原動模式有相類似之處.
Let us hypothesize that there is a basic periodicity of approximately six cycles per second.* Since we are not dealing with a mechanical device, we must expect some variations within and among individuals. It is, therefore, safer to hypothesize a rate of 6 +/- 1 per second. Thus, one-sixth of a second is taken to be a time unit in the programming of motor-speech patterns. With this assumption, a great variety of phenomena may be explained. The basic facts pertaining to them are well-established, but so far individual, unrelated explanations have been offered for each of them. A single hypothesis concerning an underlying rhythm brings them all together. We shall discuss each under a separate heading.
讓我們假設有一個大約以每秒為六個循環的基礎週期.因為我們並沒有使用機械器材,我們必須假設會有一些變量在其中.所以,比較安全的情況是假設平均每秒為6+/-1的頻率為單位.如此,1/6秒就視為原動發音模式的時間單位.在這個假設之下,多種不同的現象可以得到解釋.附屬於這些現象的基礎事實以完善建構.但對於個別,非相關性的解釋,仍相互挑戰中.有個和節奏相關的假說涉及其中.我們應該分節來加以進行討論.
(a) Delayed Feedback. Normally we hear our voice at practically the same time as it is produced. Speech may be seriously disrupted if a delay is artificially introduced between the time we actually speak and the time the corresponding sounds reach our ears. This phenomenon is often called the Lee effect. J. W. Black (1951) studied the relationship between the length of the delay and the degree of speech interference. He measured the latter in terms of the time it took subjects to read certain test material. In Fig.317 this variable is plotted as a function of the delay time. It appears that there is a critical delay that maximizes interference. The greatest interference occurs with a delay of about 180 msec(2/11 sec.). The curve found by Black is more or less what we would expect from the rhythm hypothesis.
* I am indebted to A. W. F. Huggins for valuable regarding the following paragraphs.
(a)延遲反應.通常我們聽到自己的聲音實際上就是聲音製造出來的時間點.如果延遲現象是刻意製造在我們實際說話和聲音進入到我們的耳朵之間,則語音有可能會變成片斷的.這種現象通常稱為李氏現象.J.W.Black(1951)研究延遲現象的長度和語音干擾的程度,他以有提到主詞的時間點測量後者,顯示出某些測試內容.在圖3.17以延遲時間的作用製成圖表,顯示出干擾到達最大限度的關鍵延遲現象.最大的干擾發生在180msec(2/11sec)中.而Black所發現的曲線我們多少是可以從有關節奏的假說中預知到的.
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