LB 038-042 T
A most important aspect of facial anatomy is the shape and nature of our cheeks and their relation to the size of the mouth. The architectural peculiarities of man’s skull and jaw brought about modifications in the configuration of the cheeks. They cover most of the molars during all comfortable movements of the mouth and under no circumstances are we able to bare all our teeth. In Fig. 2.4 the anatomical layers of the facial muscles are well illustrated. Once the superficial modiolar muscles are removed, the extremely sturdy muscles of the cheeks, the buccinator, may be seen, and Fig. 2.5 the insertion of this muscle in the jaws demonstrates the enclosing nature of the soft tissues around the gap between the jaws.
臉部解剖學上的結構,最重要的部分是有關於它的形狀,臉頰的特性,以及它們和口腔大小之間的關係.人類頭骨,颌骨結構的特殊性造成了臉頰結構上的修正.有關口腔所有的舒適活動中,它們涵蓋了大部分的臼齒, 並且讓我們可以暴露我們所有的牙齒.在圖2.4中,有關臉部肌肉在解剖學上構造的層次可以看得很清楚.當外表像蜗的軸肌肉在移動時,臉頰最結實的肌肉,頰肌,可能會顯現出來.在圖2.5中,颌骨肌肉的附著點顯示了包含在颌骨間隙中的軟組織的特性.
The topography described so far is relevant to the production of the following speech sounds: the relatively small mouth and the highly mobile, powerful lips allow instantaneous building up of air pressure followed by sudden release employed in the labial stops p and b, said to be one of the earliest sounds produced by the children. If the release of the lips is less sudden and closure sustained in the presence of vocalization, the sound m is produced. The intricate muscular anatomy around and in the corners of the mouth also comes regularly into play during the production of all vowels and labio-dentals such as f, v, w, and wh.
局部解剖學至今描述了有關以下聲音的產生:在發唇塞音p,b時,孩童最容易發的音之一,是小唇和活動性最強的唇部允許瞬間氣壓的增強,使得唇部突發性的張開所產生的.如果唇部的開闔沒有這麼突然,並承受了母音化的發音,則m的聲音就產生了.肌肉在解剖上的複雜性和口腔的角度也使得在發母音和脣齒音,例如f, v, w和wh形成了規律性.
(2) Topographical Anatomy of Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Hypopharynx
口腔,咽頭,咽喉的局部解剖學
We must now consider the general configuration of the internal organs that are effective during speech and their anatomical relationship to one another.
我們現在必須考慮到的是那些在發音上會造成影響的器官其內部的一般性排列和他們在解剖學上的關係.
Man’s skull deviates from the skull of other primates in several respects. Most of the deviations may be attributed to either of two major factors: (1) the increase in volume of the brain and (2) the change in posture and the concomittant shift of the center of gravity of the head. The geometic transformations shown in Fig. 2.6 illustrate these points.
造成人類的頭骨和其他靈長類的不同之處在於以下兩點主要的原因.(1)腦容量的增加.(2)由於頭部地心引力的影響造成了姿勢的變化.在幾何學上的改變,圖2.6說明了這個論點.
The changes that have taken place affect the entire configuration of the sound-producing structures. Thus the internal geometry of all resonating chambers is altered despite the fact that all bones, muscles, and other soft tissues have homologues among higher primates. Figures 2.7 to 2.11 show some of the alterations, although the exact shape of the tongue and soft palate during lifetime cannot be inferred from these photographs because of fixation artifacts ( due particularly to postmortem shrinkage of interstitial substances). Nevertheless, it is clear that the radio of height, length, and width of the oral cavity is different in man from that of his closest of skin and there must be concomitant shifts in the relative position, suspension, and attachment of the tongue.
改變的產生影響了整個發音結構上的配置.因此,使得所有共鳴腔在內部幾何學上產生改變.儘管所有的骨頭,肌肉,和其他軟組織在較高層次的靈長類中是同源的.圖2.7到2.11顯示了一些改變,雖然舌頭,軟顎正確的外形終生沒有辦法從這些由固定的人為構造圖片來推論.(由於驗屍的特殊性使得其中的物質縮小了.)儘管如此,人類口腔的長寬高比例明顯的和其親屬有所不同.在舌頭停頓,其附屬物在相關位置上必定存在著相異之處.
Also interesting is the position and orientation of the incisors relative to tip of tongue and oral cavity. In apes and many monkeys the mandible forms a “shelf” that is anterior to the tongue tip with the incisors pointing outward; when the mouth is closed in the orangutan and gorilla, the upper and lower incisors meet at an angle. Man, on the other hand, gives the impression of having the incisors and the bones in which they are imbedded pushed into the oral cavity. Thus flattens out the angle formed by the incisors when the mouth is closed.
另外,有趣的是門齒的位置和其適應性,以及舌尖和口腔之間的相關性.在猿類以及許多猴類中,下颌骨形成一個空架狀,使得門齒和舌尖前面往外;當猩猩和大猩猩將嘴巴闔上時,較高和較低的門齒會形成一個角度.人類,在另外一方面,其門齒和骨骼則是在口腔中.當嘴巴閉起來的時候,這個門齒的角度則會消失.
2/01/2009
1/14/2009
LB 107-110T
Ⅴ. THE PROBLEM OF THE ORGANIZATION PRICIPLE: RHYTHM
The production of speech and the understanding of language may be sustained for several hours without any interruptions longer than a few minutes. Within one minute of discourse as many as 10 to 15 thousand neuromuscular events occur. The facility for production or reproduction of this multitude of overlapping and closely timed activities cannot possibly have been acquired by a simple rote-learning procedure or by any other direct “stamping in” method (Miller, Galanter. and Pribram, 1960). There must be some organizing principle that underlies the perception of speech and language as well as the intricacies of timing and ordering during production. What is that general, organizing principle? Lashley, perceptive also in this respect, proposed a rhythmic phenomenon as an explanatory construct. He was, however, vague and had no empirical evidence to back up this working hypothesis. A similar solution suggests itself for reasons quiet unsuspected by Lashley.
語音和語言認知可以維持好幾個小時而不被打斷.在一分鐘的談話中,有一萬到一萬五千個神經系統的肌肉在運作.語音的流暢或是大部分重覆的部分和動作並沒有辦法運用簡單的機械式的方式呈現.當中必然存在著一些強調語言知覺和時間以及語音音序的器官組織原則.什麼是普遍的組織原則?Lashley認為,知覺作用也在其中.他提出旋律的現象和有助於解釋的構成理論.然而,他卻模糊不清,也並沒有提供根據觀察之後所得到的證據來支持其假說.而另一個相關的解決方式卻無法得到Lashley的認同.
The sequence of speech sounds that constitute a string of words is a sound pattern somewhat analogous to a mosaic; the latter is put together stone after stone, yet the picture as a whole must have come into being in the artist’s mind before he began to lay down the pieces. In the progress of his work, he may put down three contiguous stones, each of which may in the end contribute to the same or to unrelated pictorial units. When we talk about visual patterns we consider only spatial dimensions, disregarding the dimension of time. Under most circumstances, time does seem to be irrelevant. Yet, physiological processes do have a temporal dimension, and even in the process of seeing, which strikes us as taking place instantaneously, time plays a role. The identification of such simple figures as triangles and circles requires time and consequently, requires temporal integration in the central nervous system.
所謂聲音的模式,是由語音的連續性構成了一串文字.有點類似馬賽克磚.馬賽克磚是將石頭一個一個排列整齊,在整個作品完成之前,作者必須先在腦中構思.而在他製作的過程中,他可能會先將相鄰的三塊石頭排列在一起,每一塊石頭最終都是為了要能完成作品.當我們討論到視覺的模式,我們所考慮到的只有空間的範圍,而不討論時間.而在視覺的過程中,當我們看到一件突發事件.時間則扮演著重要的角色.例如簡單的圖像,三角形或是圓形的證明,需要時間來證明.因此,中樞神經系統則需要時間的統整.
In sound patterns, the entire configuration is in the realm of time and the problem then becomes: How does pattern or order in time differ from randomness or disorder in time. What is it that enables us to recognize and to reproduce a time pattern – any time pattern?
在聲音的模式中.聲音完整的配置和排列會產生問題:在時間上,隨機性和失序性在模式或者是秩序上有何不同?為何能讓我們分辨並且去重新製造一個時間的模式—任何時間的模式?
In music it is well-known that it is possible to recognize melodies by finger tapping, or even head nodding; and after listening to ten seconds or more of finger tapping, we can discriminate fairly well between random tapping and patterned tapping. Behaviorally, patterned tapping can be memorized and is recognizable and reproducible; random tapping is not. The essential nature of a time pattern is an underlying pulse or beat. In the extreme case of order in time, the simplest pattern is the unadulterated pulse such as the tick-tock of a metronome. We can complicate this simple pattern by temporal modulation such as skipping a beat regularly or introducing additional taps between beats where those extra taps must occur at fractional periods of the time unit. The underlying pulse is the carrier on which the rhythmic pattern can be “fastened.” It is its indispensable ingredient in much the same way as a figure may only be recognized against a ground. Notice that of all the information contained in a melody none is as indispensable for recognition as that concerning time. We may eliminate variations in pitch, loudness, or timbre and still recognize the melody, but if we destroy the internal temporal relationships without distorting the other variables, the melody becomes at once unrecognizable (cf. also Sachs.1953).
在音樂中,大家都知道可以用拍手或者是點頭來分別出旋律;在聽完十秒或更多一點的拍手之後,我們可以非常清楚地區分出是隨機性的拍手或者是具有模仿性的拍手.具有模仿性的拍手可以被記憶,區別,並且被重覆.而隨機性的拍手則沒有辦法.最主要的原因是因為時間的模式強調拍子或者是連續性的拍打.在時間秩序的極端例子當中,最簡單的模式就像是節拍器,以時鐘式的擺動正確地表示出曲子拍子的器具.我們會被這樣簡單的模式所混淆是因為對於時間的調整,像是在拍子和拍子中間跳過一拍或者是多加一拍,這樣會造成在一個完整的時間單位中製造一些破碎的片段.特別被強調的拍子,就像是一個載體,可以使旋律的模式固定.要注意的是,任何一個有關於旋律的訊息都是應該注意的.我們或許會忽略拍子或聲音或音質的變化,仍然能辨別出旋律,但假使我們破壞了其中和時間的關聯,使其他的變因變形,則旋律就會無法辨別.
We have been talking here primarily of sound patterns. But our observations are actually applicable to all temporal patterns whether they are perceived through our ears, our eyes, our skin, or our sense of proprioception. In any medium, temporal pattern means a carrier pulse with modulations. Let us call the carrier pulse simply the rhythm.
我們在這裡已經討論了基本的聲音模式.但是我們的觀察要能確切地適用於所有的時間模式,不論是經由我們的耳朵,眼睛,或者是皮膚所感覺到的.在任何情形之下,時間模式是指可以調整拍子的載體,就讓我們簡稱為節奏.
If speech is a patterned temporal phenomenon, and if such phenomena are based on underlying rhythms, is articulation rhythmic?
如果講話是模仿時間現象,假使這種現象主要是以強調節奏為主,那麼發音是有節奏的嗎?
(1) The Rhythm Nature of Articulation
A rhythm may be marked by equidistant pulses or by simple oscillations. A special
case of the latter is the periodic alternation between two states, say sleep and wakefulness, or facilitation and inhibition. The rhythm underlying speech seems to be based on rhythmic alternations between states although we cannot yet say what the origin or nature of these states might be. Because of our ignorance of the true physiological basis of these states, we must be content with thinking of them as purely theoretical constructs. Let us say they are states of initiation and execution of motor patterns (or cycles of activation and inhibition).
節奏可以用平行的節拍或者是簡單的擺動來表示.對於後者,存在著一個特別的情況,以週期性的交互作用存在在兩種不同的狀態之間,休眠和非休眠,或者是促進和壓抑.強調講話的節奏似乎是在這兩種不同的狀態下交互作用.雖然,我們現在還不能了解這些狀態的開端和本質為何.因為我們對於這些狀態在生理學基礎上的無知,我們必須要樂意地思考其開端以及原動模式的演奏技巧.(或者是活動和阻礙的週期)
An analogy might illustrate the point. Take once more the drummimg of our fingers upon a table top. We can make the taps follow one another in rapid succession and with practice we may learn to tap without introduction a longer pause or louder tap at the time we start with the small finger again. Nevertheless, the tapping is organized in terms of a single motor pattern of the hand; for every four taps we have to repeat that pattern. If we tap simultaneously with both hands we have two such pattern going on at the same time, and the individual taps from the right and the left hand will intermingle in their temporal sequence. Ordinarily we can hear the tapping rhythm (that is, the grouping by fours), but in some cases the rhythm may no longer be recognizable. However, even in these cases, there are statistical means by which the underlying rhythmicity could be demonstrated. Each motor pattern is somewhat similar to fundamental motor patterns that underlie speech, probably corresponding to syllables.
用類比的方式來說明這個觀念.我們在桌面上用手打鼓.我們可以一個接著一個連續地打拍子.在練習的時候,我們可以不用製造出太長或者是太大聲的拍子.尤其是當我們重新用小拇指練習的時候.雖然拍子是由一個一個手的原動模式所組成的,但我們仍能重覆一個四拍的節奏.如果我們同時用左右兩手,則左右手各個拍子會融合於他們的時間的連續性當中.正常情況,我們可以聽到拍子的節奏(四個一拍).但有些情況之下節奏可能無法辨識.然而,即使如此,那些節奏仍可用統計的方式來證實.每個原動模式多少都和那些已發音或者是相當於以音節為基礎的基礎原動模式有相類似之處.
Let us hypothesize that there is a basic periodicity of approximately six cycles per second.* Since we are not dealing with a mechanical device, we must expect some variations within and among individuals. It is, therefore, safer to hypothesize a rate of 6 +/- 1 per second. Thus, one-sixth of a second is taken to be a time unit in the programming of motor-speech patterns. With this assumption, a great variety of phenomena may be explained. The basic facts pertaining to them are well-established, but so far individual, unrelated explanations have been offered for each of them. A single hypothesis concerning an underlying rhythm brings them all together. We shall discuss each under a separate heading.
讓我們假設有一個大約以每秒為六個循環的基礎週期.因為我們並沒有使用機械器材,我們必須假設會有一些變量在其中.所以,比較安全的情況是假設平均每秒為6+/-1的頻率為單位.如此,1/6秒就視為原動發音模式的時間單位.在這個假設之下,多種不同的現象可以得到解釋.附屬於這些現象的基礎事實以完善建構.但對於個別,非相關性的解釋,仍相互挑戰中.有個和節奏相關的假說涉及其中.我們應該分節來加以進行討論.
(a) Delayed Feedback. Normally we hear our voice at practically the same time as it is produced. Speech may be seriously disrupted if a delay is artificially introduced between the time we actually speak and the time the corresponding sounds reach our ears. This phenomenon is often called the Lee effect. J. W. Black (1951) studied the relationship between the length of the delay and the degree of speech interference. He measured the latter in terms of the time it took subjects to read certain test material. In Fig.317 this variable is plotted as a function of the delay time. It appears that there is a critical delay that maximizes interference. The greatest interference occurs with a delay of about 180 msec(2/11 sec.). The curve found by Black is more or less what we would expect from the rhythm hypothesis.
* I am indebted to A. W. F. Huggins for valuable regarding the following paragraphs.
(a)延遲反應.通常我們聽到自己的聲音實際上就是聲音製造出來的時間點.如果延遲現象是刻意製造在我們實際說話和聲音進入到我們的耳朵之間,則語音有可能會變成片斷的.這種現象通常稱為李氏現象.J.W.Black(1951)研究延遲現象的長度和語音干擾的程度,他以有提到主詞的時間點測量後者,顯示出某些測試內容.在圖3.17以延遲時間的作用製成圖表,顯示出干擾到達最大限度的關鍵延遲現象.最大的干擾發生在180msec(2/11sec)中.而Black所發現的曲線我們多少是可以從有關節奏的假說中預知到的.
The production of speech and the understanding of language may be sustained for several hours without any interruptions longer than a few minutes. Within one minute of discourse as many as 10 to 15 thousand neuromuscular events occur. The facility for production or reproduction of this multitude of overlapping and closely timed activities cannot possibly have been acquired by a simple rote-learning procedure or by any other direct “stamping in” method (Miller, Galanter. and Pribram, 1960). There must be some organizing principle that underlies the perception of speech and language as well as the intricacies of timing and ordering during production. What is that general, organizing principle? Lashley, perceptive also in this respect, proposed a rhythmic phenomenon as an explanatory construct. He was, however, vague and had no empirical evidence to back up this working hypothesis. A similar solution suggests itself for reasons quiet unsuspected by Lashley.
語音和語言認知可以維持好幾個小時而不被打斷.在一分鐘的談話中,有一萬到一萬五千個神經系統的肌肉在運作.語音的流暢或是大部分重覆的部分和動作並沒有辦法運用簡單的機械式的方式呈現.當中必然存在著一些強調語言知覺和時間以及語音音序的器官組織原則.什麼是普遍的組織原則?Lashley認為,知覺作用也在其中.他提出旋律的現象和有助於解釋的構成理論.然而,他卻模糊不清,也並沒有提供根據觀察之後所得到的證據來支持其假說.而另一個相關的解決方式卻無法得到Lashley的認同.
The sequence of speech sounds that constitute a string of words is a sound pattern somewhat analogous to a mosaic; the latter is put together stone after stone, yet the picture as a whole must have come into being in the artist’s mind before he began to lay down the pieces. In the progress of his work, he may put down three contiguous stones, each of which may in the end contribute to the same or to unrelated pictorial units. When we talk about visual patterns we consider only spatial dimensions, disregarding the dimension of time. Under most circumstances, time does seem to be irrelevant. Yet, physiological processes do have a temporal dimension, and even in the process of seeing, which strikes us as taking place instantaneously, time plays a role. The identification of such simple figures as triangles and circles requires time and consequently, requires temporal integration in the central nervous system.
所謂聲音的模式,是由語音的連續性構成了一串文字.有點類似馬賽克磚.馬賽克磚是將石頭一個一個排列整齊,在整個作品完成之前,作者必須先在腦中構思.而在他製作的過程中,他可能會先將相鄰的三塊石頭排列在一起,每一塊石頭最終都是為了要能完成作品.當我們討論到視覺的模式,我們所考慮到的只有空間的範圍,而不討論時間.而在視覺的過程中,當我們看到一件突發事件.時間則扮演著重要的角色.例如簡單的圖像,三角形或是圓形的證明,需要時間來證明.因此,中樞神經系統則需要時間的統整.
In sound patterns, the entire configuration is in the realm of time and the problem then becomes: How does pattern or order in time differ from randomness or disorder in time. What is it that enables us to recognize and to reproduce a time pattern – any time pattern?
在聲音的模式中.聲音完整的配置和排列會產生問題:在時間上,隨機性和失序性在模式或者是秩序上有何不同?為何能讓我們分辨並且去重新製造一個時間的模式—任何時間的模式?
In music it is well-known that it is possible to recognize melodies by finger tapping, or even head nodding; and after listening to ten seconds or more of finger tapping, we can discriminate fairly well between random tapping and patterned tapping. Behaviorally, patterned tapping can be memorized and is recognizable and reproducible; random tapping is not. The essential nature of a time pattern is an underlying pulse or beat. In the extreme case of order in time, the simplest pattern is the unadulterated pulse such as the tick-tock of a metronome. We can complicate this simple pattern by temporal modulation such as skipping a beat regularly or introducing additional taps between beats where those extra taps must occur at fractional periods of the time unit. The underlying pulse is the carrier on which the rhythmic pattern can be “fastened.” It is its indispensable ingredient in much the same way as a figure may only be recognized against a ground. Notice that of all the information contained in a melody none is as indispensable for recognition as that concerning time. We may eliminate variations in pitch, loudness, or timbre and still recognize the melody, but if we destroy the internal temporal relationships without distorting the other variables, the melody becomes at once unrecognizable (cf. also Sachs.1953).
在音樂中,大家都知道可以用拍手或者是點頭來分別出旋律;在聽完十秒或更多一點的拍手之後,我們可以非常清楚地區分出是隨機性的拍手或者是具有模仿性的拍手.具有模仿性的拍手可以被記憶,區別,並且被重覆.而隨機性的拍手則沒有辦法.最主要的原因是因為時間的模式強調拍子或者是連續性的拍打.在時間秩序的極端例子當中,最簡單的模式就像是節拍器,以時鐘式的擺動正確地表示出曲子拍子的器具.我們會被這樣簡單的模式所混淆是因為對於時間的調整,像是在拍子和拍子中間跳過一拍或者是多加一拍,這樣會造成在一個完整的時間單位中製造一些破碎的片段.特別被強調的拍子,就像是一個載體,可以使旋律的模式固定.要注意的是,任何一個有關於旋律的訊息都是應該注意的.我們或許會忽略拍子或聲音或音質的變化,仍然能辨別出旋律,但假使我們破壞了其中和時間的關聯,使其他的變因變形,則旋律就會無法辨別.
We have been talking here primarily of sound patterns. But our observations are actually applicable to all temporal patterns whether they are perceived through our ears, our eyes, our skin, or our sense of proprioception. In any medium, temporal pattern means a carrier pulse with modulations. Let us call the carrier pulse simply the rhythm.
我們在這裡已經討論了基本的聲音模式.但是我們的觀察要能確切地適用於所有的時間模式,不論是經由我們的耳朵,眼睛,或者是皮膚所感覺到的.在任何情形之下,時間模式是指可以調整拍子的載體,就讓我們簡稱為節奏.
If speech is a patterned temporal phenomenon, and if such phenomena are based on underlying rhythms, is articulation rhythmic?
如果講話是模仿時間現象,假使這種現象主要是以強調節奏為主,那麼發音是有節奏的嗎?
(1) The Rhythm Nature of Articulation
A rhythm may be marked by equidistant pulses or by simple oscillations. A special
case of the latter is the periodic alternation between two states, say sleep and wakefulness, or facilitation and inhibition. The rhythm underlying speech seems to be based on rhythmic alternations between states although we cannot yet say what the origin or nature of these states might be. Because of our ignorance of the true physiological basis of these states, we must be content with thinking of them as purely theoretical constructs. Let us say they are states of initiation and execution of motor patterns (or cycles of activation and inhibition).
節奏可以用平行的節拍或者是簡單的擺動來表示.對於後者,存在著一個特別的情況,以週期性的交互作用存在在兩種不同的狀態之間,休眠和非休眠,或者是促進和壓抑.強調講話的節奏似乎是在這兩種不同的狀態下交互作用.雖然,我們現在還不能了解這些狀態的開端和本質為何.因為我們對於這些狀態在生理學基礎上的無知,我們必須要樂意地思考其開端以及原動模式的演奏技巧.(或者是活動和阻礙的週期)
An analogy might illustrate the point. Take once more the drummimg of our fingers upon a table top. We can make the taps follow one another in rapid succession and with practice we may learn to tap without introduction a longer pause or louder tap at the time we start with the small finger again. Nevertheless, the tapping is organized in terms of a single motor pattern of the hand; for every four taps we have to repeat that pattern. If we tap simultaneously with both hands we have two such pattern going on at the same time, and the individual taps from the right and the left hand will intermingle in their temporal sequence. Ordinarily we can hear the tapping rhythm (that is, the grouping by fours), but in some cases the rhythm may no longer be recognizable. However, even in these cases, there are statistical means by which the underlying rhythmicity could be demonstrated. Each motor pattern is somewhat similar to fundamental motor patterns that underlie speech, probably corresponding to syllables.
用類比的方式來說明這個觀念.我們在桌面上用手打鼓.我們可以一個接著一個連續地打拍子.在練習的時候,我們可以不用製造出太長或者是太大聲的拍子.尤其是當我們重新用小拇指練習的時候.雖然拍子是由一個一個手的原動模式所組成的,但我們仍能重覆一個四拍的節奏.如果我們同時用左右兩手,則左右手各個拍子會融合於他們的時間的連續性當中.正常情況,我們可以聽到拍子的節奏(四個一拍).但有些情況之下節奏可能無法辨識.然而,即使如此,那些節奏仍可用統計的方式來證實.每個原動模式多少都和那些已發音或者是相當於以音節為基礎的基礎原動模式有相類似之處.
Let us hypothesize that there is a basic periodicity of approximately six cycles per second.* Since we are not dealing with a mechanical device, we must expect some variations within and among individuals. It is, therefore, safer to hypothesize a rate of 6 +/- 1 per second. Thus, one-sixth of a second is taken to be a time unit in the programming of motor-speech patterns. With this assumption, a great variety of phenomena may be explained. The basic facts pertaining to them are well-established, but so far individual, unrelated explanations have been offered for each of them. A single hypothesis concerning an underlying rhythm brings them all together. We shall discuss each under a separate heading.
讓我們假設有一個大約以每秒為六個循環的基礎週期.因為我們並沒有使用機械器材,我們必須假設會有一些變量在其中.所以,比較安全的情況是假設平均每秒為6+/-1的頻率為單位.如此,1/6秒就視為原動發音模式的時間單位.在這個假設之下,多種不同的現象可以得到解釋.附屬於這些現象的基礎事實以完善建構.但對於個別,非相關性的解釋,仍相互挑戰中.有個和節奏相關的假說涉及其中.我們應該分節來加以進行討論.
(a) Delayed Feedback. Normally we hear our voice at practically the same time as it is produced. Speech may be seriously disrupted if a delay is artificially introduced between the time we actually speak and the time the corresponding sounds reach our ears. This phenomenon is often called the Lee effect. J. W. Black (1951) studied the relationship between the length of the delay and the degree of speech interference. He measured the latter in terms of the time it took subjects to read certain test material. In Fig.317 this variable is plotted as a function of the delay time. It appears that there is a critical delay that maximizes interference. The greatest interference occurs with a delay of about 180 msec(2/11 sec.). The curve found by Black is more or less what we would expect from the rhythm hypothesis.
* I am indebted to A. W. F. Huggins for valuable regarding the following paragraphs.
(a)延遲反應.通常我們聽到自己的聲音實際上就是聲音製造出來的時間點.如果延遲現象是刻意製造在我們實際說話和聲音進入到我們的耳朵之間,則語音有可能會變成片斷的.這種現象通常稱為李氏現象.J.W.Black(1951)研究延遲現象的長度和語音干擾的程度,他以有提到主詞的時間點測量後者,顯示出某些測試內容.在圖3.17以延遲時間的作用製成圖表,顯示出干擾到達最大限度的關鍵延遲現象.最大的干擾發生在180msec(2/11sec)中.而Black所發現的曲線我們多少是可以從有關節奏的假說中預知到的.
LB 015-018 T
(3) Developmental History of the Central Regulatory Mechanism
The logical argument offered by Lashley is supported by an impressive array of experimental findings. We have mentioned the experiments on salamander larvae in which limb buds were transplanted to inappropriate sites. If a left forelimb is amputated from a donor animal and transplanted as a supernumerary limb to a host animal where it is allowed to regenerate into the right armpit, the extra limb is soon found to be moving smoothly. No tonic rigidity is noticed, and therefore we must assume that agonist and antagonist muscles receive innervation that is appropriate to the muscle. Interestingly enough, the limb will move at the tome that is appropriate for a forelimb to move; since, however, we have changed sides in the process of transplantation, the super numerary limb will move in the opposite direction from the original limb that is next to it. Thus one limb cancels the effect of the other, and it is possible to have a preparation with totally paradoxical behavior.
Lashley所提出的邏輯辯論是根據一個印象深刻的實驗結果.我們可以注意到在蠑螈幼蟲的實驗中,對於幼蟲四肢的解釋並不恰當.如果由捐贈器官的動物切除其左前肢,並移植到另一隻腳到宿主動物身上,則這隻額外移植的腳能馬上行動自如,沒有任何僵硬或不適的情形,因此,我們可以假設收縮筋和頡頏肌的神經分布是適合肌肉生長的.有趣的是,前肢移動的時候也會帶動後肢的移動,然而,當我們將移植改變到另一側時,額外移植的另一隻腳則會往反方向移動.因此,一隻腳相對抵消了對另外一隻腳的影響.這對動物不合常理的行為提出了一種可能的解釋.
What is the nature of this relationship between the limb and the brain? How can reciprocal innervation of muscles and timing of the limb with respect to other limbs be established in a fairly orderly way where there could not have been any neuronal “wiring” for the additional leg? Inspection under the microscope of the regenerated tissues does not reveal any visible order. Never fibers seem to have sprouted every which way, and the established connections seem to be entirely random. Could this be a delusion due perhaps to insufficient power of resolution of the light microscope? Is it possible that the nerve sprouts actually find their way to the appropriate muscle because of some unknown biochemical affinity between muscle and nerve? At first this possibility was never entertained. Instead it was thought that muscles were physiologically tuned to specific neuronal messages and simply responded whenever they “heard their name over the public address system.” This hypothesis was known as the muscle-resonance theory. However, Wiersma(1931) disproved the theory by recording electrical potentials from the nerves. Subsequently, the orderly recovery of motor coordination in the transplanted limb was interpreted on the basis of structural connections. There are two essential possibilities here. Either the nervous system entirely fixed and proper connections are made at the periphery in the way first mentioned, that is, fibers that carry given messages have the capacity of finding their way into the appropriate muscle during regeneration; or the muscles have the capacity of influencing the nerves that grow into them and thus affect the central nervous system retrogradely.
而四肢和腦部之間在本質上存在著什麼樣的關係呢?肌肉組織的神經交互分布和四肢之間的關聯性要如何建立一個相當有秩序的方式,讓那隻額外移植的腳沒有發上任何神經系統上錯誤的?把肌肉重生的組織放在顯微鏡下觀察,似乎無法從肉眼得知.神經組織可能以任何方式生長以及發展,而其中所建立的連結似乎是隨機的.這會是由於顯微鏡的觀察沒有提供充分的解答所造成的誤解嗎?神經系統的生長有沒有可能是因為肌肉組織和神經之間存在生物化學上,異種物質間起化學作用所產生的吸引力?起初,這種可能性是完全不被接受的.當時是認為肌肉在生理學上調整成特有的神經訊息,只單純地在公開的演講系統聽到他們的命名時作回應,這樣的說法就是著名的肌肉共振理論.然而,Wierma(1931)以神經的電位來推論此理論.其次,針對經過一值得繳,其運動神經協調性的復原,說明了神經連結架構的基礎.在這裡,有兩種重要的可能性.第一種,神經系統是固有的,而其中的連結是根據一開始所提到的外圍方式,也就是說,在肌肉重生的過程中,帶有訊息的組織有能力去尋找到適合的肌肉組織.另外一種可能性是,肌肉擁有影響神經的能力,藉以降低中樞神經系統的影響力.
The first of these two possibilities has gained plausibility in most recent investigations (Mark, 1965) , although it is still far from established. The second possibility is favored by many of the neuroembryologists who had made the original discoveries on lower vertebrates. In Weiss’s own words (1950b) : It is thought now that “each muscle has a specific biochemical differential, that it projects this differential into the motor nerve fibers that come to innervate it and thus tunes (modulates) the motor ganglion cells to a specificity appropriate for the particular muscle. The ganglion cells have received their specificity by a retrograde influence (modulation) from the muscle itself.” Until recently, Sperry (1958) believed that the biochemical influence exerted by the muscle upon the nerve actually induces synaptic changes in the central nervous system. But Eccles et al. (1962) found only limited support for this interpretation, lending credence to Mark’s (1965) interpretation, a point of view that is also now favored by Sperry (1963). For an up-to-date review of the entire topic see Weiss (1965).
此兩種假設雖然和以建立的理論有一段差距,但仍在之後的研究中逐漸取得合理性.其中,第二種假設最受到許多從事研究較低階脊椎動物的神經病理學者支持.在Weiss所提出的論述中:每一條肌肉都具有生物化學上的差異,並將這樣的差異性投射於運動神經的組織中,並且改變運動神經節細胞,成為只針對某特定肌肉發展的細胞.神經節細胞接收到這樣的訊息是受到肌肉本身調整的影響.一直到西元1958年,Sperry相信運用神經肌肉在生物化學上的影響,在中樞神經系統上確實減少了生殖細胞在進行減數分裂的前期,相同染色體互相結合的現象.但是,Eccles et.al在西元1962年發現只有少數研究支持這項理論,而對於Mark在西元1965年的研究給予肯定.同時也獲得了Sperry的支持.相關最新的且完整的論述可以參考Weiss (1965).
The importance of the original discovery is that in phylogenetically primitive vertebrates (and probably during fetal stages of most other vertebrates) there is an inescapable BaupIan (blueprint) for both the gross form and the sensory-motor integration. The surgical rearrangement experiments on lower forms show how difficult it is to interfere with the “preestablished harmony” of the movements of muscles throughout the body which accounts for smooth coordination.
最初的重要發現是對於脊椎動物一開始有關物種的變化(或者是在大多數脊椎動物的胚胎階段)有一個關於數量以及運動肌感知的整合性的藍圖.在較低階的外科手術重组實驗中顯示在流暢的身體協調度上肌肉運動前期在協調方面的困難
Compare this situation with rearrangement experiments in mammals and adult forms of lower vertebrates. If the nerves which normally feed a flexor and extensor pair of muscles, respectively, are interchanged surgically and are allowed to regenerate into the wrong muscle, subsequent coordination becomes disordered and remains so.
和較低階的脊椎動物中的哺乳類動物重组實驗的相比較之下,如果屈肌和伸肌在外科手術上互相交換,並且重新生長錯誤的肌肉,則協調性會受到阻礙,且阻礙的形況會一直持續下去.
The difference in the results of rearrangement between lower and higher forms is not as paradoxical as it might appear at first. Table 1.1 summarizes the situation for easier reference. We discern here the emergence of a specific theme. For all animals examined, rigid plans for development of form and motor coordination seem to exist. In primitive forms, tissues are less differentiated or specialized and thus participate in the organization responsible for motor coordination; end organs may influence the structure and function of centers as much as the centers may influence the periphery. The result is preservation of the original plan for integration. In adult and higher forms, tissues become more and more specialized and thus more independent of each other. The motor-integration plan is no longer “inscribed” in tissues other than those directly concerned with coordination, principally the brain. The basic plan or plans (the dispatch schedules) for sensory motor coordination are still as rigidly inherent in the internal organization of the animal but they are stored now in the central nervous system alone. In this context, the dimension of plasticity-rigidity refers exclusively to adaptation and readjustment of internal process, not to an animal’s adaptation to environmental conditions.
在較高階和低階的層次上,重组結果的不同,並非是不合理的.圖表1.1說明了先前所參考的情況.我們認知到了特殊命題的急迫性.在所有調查的動物中,較堅硬植物的生長和運動神經的協調性是存在的.對於運動神經的協調度而言,組織初期的形狀並無明顯不同.而最終器官或許會影響組織核心的架構和功能,就像是組織核心影響外圍一樣.其結果是在成熟或更高階的形式,組織變得越來越有個別性,越來越獨立於其他組織.而運動神經整合的計畫不再只是存在組織當中,而是直接參與協調.主要以腦部為主.最初對於感知運動在神經協調性的計畫,是嚴格地經由遺傳到動物的內部組織中.但它們現在仍獨立儲存於中樞神經系統中.在這裡,適應性和剛性所指的是內部過程中的適應性和重新調整的能力,而不是指動物對外界環境的適應性.
The logical argument offered by Lashley is supported by an impressive array of experimental findings. We have mentioned the experiments on salamander larvae in which limb buds were transplanted to inappropriate sites. If a left forelimb is amputated from a donor animal and transplanted as a supernumerary limb to a host animal where it is allowed to regenerate into the right armpit, the extra limb is soon found to be moving smoothly. No tonic rigidity is noticed, and therefore we must assume that agonist and antagonist muscles receive innervation that is appropriate to the muscle. Interestingly enough, the limb will move at the tome that is appropriate for a forelimb to move; since, however, we have changed sides in the process of transplantation, the super numerary limb will move in the opposite direction from the original limb that is next to it. Thus one limb cancels the effect of the other, and it is possible to have a preparation with totally paradoxical behavior.
Lashley所提出的邏輯辯論是根據一個印象深刻的實驗結果.我們可以注意到在蠑螈幼蟲的實驗中,對於幼蟲四肢的解釋並不恰當.如果由捐贈器官的動物切除其左前肢,並移植到另一隻腳到宿主動物身上,則這隻額外移植的腳能馬上行動自如,沒有任何僵硬或不適的情形,因此,我們可以假設收縮筋和頡頏肌的神經分布是適合肌肉生長的.有趣的是,前肢移動的時候也會帶動後肢的移動,然而,當我們將移植改變到另一側時,額外移植的另一隻腳則會往反方向移動.因此,一隻腳相對抵消了對另外一隻腳的影響.這對動物不合常理的行為提出了一種可能的解釋.
What is the nature of this relationship between the limb and the brain? How can reciprocal innervation of muscles and timing of the limb with respect to other limbs be established in a fairly orderly way where there could not have been any neuronal “wiring” for the additional leg? Inspection under the microscope of the regenerated tissues does not reveal any visible order. Never fibers seem to have sprouted every which way, and the established connections seem to be entirely random. Could this be a delusion due perhaps to insufficient power of resolution of the light microscope? Is it possible that the nerve sprouts actually find their way to the appropriate muscle because of some unknown biochemical affinity between muscle and nerve? At first this possibility was never entertained. Instead it was thought that muscles were physiologically tuned to specific neuronal messages and simply responded whenever they “heard their name over the public address system.” This hypothesis was known as the muscle-resonance theory. However, Wiersma(1931) disproved the theory by recording electrical potentials from the nerves. Subsequently, the orderly recovery of motor coordination in the transplanted limb was interpreted on the basis of structural connections. There are two essential possibilities here. Either the nervous system entirely fixed and proper connections are made at the periphery in the way first mentioned, that is, fibers that carry given messages have the capacity of finding their way into the appropriate muscle during regeneration; or the muscles have the capacity of influencing the nerves that grow into them and thus affect the central nervous system retrogradely.
而四肢和腦部之間在本質上存在著什麼樣的關係呢?肌肉組織的神經交互分布和四肢之間的關聯性要如何建立一個相當有秩序的方式,讓那隻額外移植的腳沒有發上任何神經系統上錯誤的?把肌肉重生的組織放在顯微鏡下觀察,似乎無法從肉眼得知.神經組織可能以任何方式生長以及發展,而其中所建立的連結似乎是隨機的.這會是由於顯微鏡的觀察沒有提供充分的解答所造成的誤解嗎?神經系統的生長有沒有可能是因為肌肉組織和神經之間存在生物化學上,異種物質間起化學作用所產生的吸引力?起初,這種可能性是完全不被接受的.當時是認為肌肉在生理學上調整成特有的神經訊息,只單純地在公開的演講系統聽到他們的命名時作回應,這樣的說法就是著名的肌肉共振理論.然而,Wierma(1931)以神經的電位來推論此理論.其次,針對經過一值得繳,其運動神經協調性的復原,說明了神經連結架構的基礎.在這裡,有兩種重要的可能性.第一種,神經系統是固有的,而其中的連結是根據一開始所提到的外圍方式,也就是說,在肌肉重生的過程中,帶有訊息的組織有能力去尋找到適合的肌肉組織.另外一種可能性是,肌肉擁有影響神經的能力,藉以降低中樞神經系統的影響力.
The first of these two possibilities has gained plausibility in most recent investigations (Mark, 1965) , although it is still far from established. The second possibility is favored by many of the neuroembryologists who had made the original discoveries on lower vertebrates. In Weiss’s own words (1950b) : It is thought now that “each muscle has a specific biochemical differential, that it projects this differential into the motor nerve fibers that come to innervate it and thus tunes (modulates) the motor ganglion cells to a specificity appropriate for the particular muscle. The ganglion cells have received their specificity by a retrograde influence (modulation) from the muscle itself.” Until recently, Sperry (1958) believed that the biochemical influence exerted by the muscle upon the nerve actually induces synaptic changes in the central nervous system. But Eccles et al. (1962) found only limited support for this interpretation, lending credence to Mark’s (1965) interpretation, a point of view that is also now favored by Sperry (1963). For an up-to-date review of the entire topic see Weiss (1965).
此兩種假設雖然和以建立的理論有一段差距,但仍在之後的研究中逐漸取得合理性.其中,第二種假設最受到許多從事研究較低階脊椎動物的神經病理學者支持.在Weiss所提出的論述中:每一條肌肉都具有生物化學上的差異,並將這樣的差異性投射於運動神經的組織中,並且改變運動神經節細胞,成為只針對某特定肌肉發展的細胞.神經節細胞接收到這樣的訊息是受到肌肉本身調整的影響.一直到西元1958年,Sperry相信運用神經肌肉在生物化學上的影響,在中樞神經系統上確實減少了生殖細胞在進行減數分裂的前期,相同染色體互相結合的現象.但是,Eccles et.al在西元1962年發現只有少數研究支持這項理論,而對於Mark在西元1965年的研究給予肯定.同時也獲得了Sperry的支持.相關最新的且完整的論述可以參考Weiss (1965).
The importance of the original discovery is that in phylogenetically primitive vertebrates (and probably during fetal stages of most other vertebrates) there is an inescapable BaupIan (blueprint) for both the gross form and the sensory-motor integration. The surgical rearrangement experiments on lower forms show how difficult it is to interfere with the “preestablished harmony” of the movements of muscles throughout the body which accounts for smooth coordination.
最初的重要發現是對於脊椎動物一開始有關物種的變化(或者是在大多數脊椎動物的胚胎階段)有一個關於數量以及運動肌感知的整合性的藍圖.在較低階的外科手術重组實驗中顯示在流暢的身體協調度上肌肉運動前期在協調方面的困難
Compare this situation with rearrangement experiments in mammals and adult forms of lower vertebrates. If the nerves which normally feed a flexor and extensor pair of muscles, respectively, are interchanged surgically and are allowed to regenerate into the wrong muscle, subsequent coordination becomes disordered and remains so.
和較低階的脊椎動物中的哺乳類動物重组實驗的相比較之下,如果屈肌和伸肌在外科手術上互相交換,並且重新生長錯誤的肌肉,則協調性會受到阻礙,且阻礙的形況會一直持續下去.
The difference in the results of rearrangement between lower and higher forms is not as paradoxical as it might appear at first. Table 1.1 summarizes the situation for easier reference. We discern here the emergence of a specific theme. For all animals examined, rigid plans for development of form and motor coordination seem to exist. In primitive forms, tissues are less differentiated or specialized and thus participate in the organization responsible for motor coordination; end organs may influence the structure and function of centers as much as the centers may influence the periphery. The result is preservation of the original plan for integration. In adult and higher forms, tissues become more and more specialized and thus more independent of each other. The motor-integration plan is no longer “inscribed” in tissues other than those directly concerned with coordination, principally the brain. The basic plan or plans (the dispatch schedules) for sensory motor coordination are still as rigidly inherent in the internal organization of the animal but they are stored now in the central nervous system alone. In this context, the dimension of plasticity-rigidity refers exclusively to adaptation and readjustment of internal process, not to an animal’s adaptation to environmental conditions.
在較高階和低階的層次上,重组結果的不同,並非是不合理的.圖表1.1說明了先前所參考的情況.我們認知到了特殊命題的急迫性.在所有調查的動物中,較堅硬植物的生長和運動神經的協調性是存在的.對於運動神經的協調度而言,組織初期的形狀並無明顯不同.而最終器官或許會影響組織核心的架構和功能,就像是組織核心影響外圍一樣.其結果是在成熟或更高階的形式,組織變得越來越有個別性,越來越獨立於其他組織.而運動神經整合的計畫不再只是存在組織當中,而是直接參與協調.主要以腦部為主.最初對於感知運動在神經協調性的計畫,是嚴格地經由遺傳到動物的內部組織中.但它們現在仍獨立儲存於中樞神經系統中.在這裡,適應性和剛性所指的是內部過程中的適應性和重新調整的能力,而不是指動物對外界環境的適應性.
11/19/2008
LB 453-455 T
John Locke (1632-1704) discussed language because he had found that,” There is so close a connection between ideas and words…that it is impossible to speak clearly and distinctly of our knowledge, which all consists of propositions, without considering first, the nature, use, and signification of language “ which he did not equate with reason. God had” designed man for a sociable creature, ...under a necessity to have fellowship with those of his own kind;…furnished him also with language…the greatest instrument, and common tie of society.” To that end man’s organs were fashioned “ to form articulate sounds “and he was given the ability “to use these sounds as signs of internal conceptions, and to make them stand as marks for the ideas within his own mind…” Reading Locke up to this point, one may have gained the impression that he regarded language and society as creations of God. However, he continues in the next chapter:
John Locke 討論到語言,因為他發現思想和語言之間有著密不可分的關係.不可能和我們的知識清楚地區隔開來.因為我們的知識包含了語言的本質,使用方式和文字本身的意義.在此,他並沒有將理性加入討論.上帝將人創造成具社會性的受造物,同時提供人類語言,因為語言是最好的工具,也是共同的社會約束.為了讓語言成為共同的社會約束,人類的發音器官被上帝塑造成是用來產生發音清晰的聲音,並同時賦予人類用聲音表達內在思想的能力,讓聲音成為人們表達思想的符號. 在看完Locke的論述之後,或許有人認為他將語言和社會視為上帝的創造物,然而,他在下一個章節繼續談論到:
“The comfort and advantage of society, not being to be had without communication of thoughts, it war necessary that man should find out some external sensible signs, whereby those invisible ideas… might be known to others. For this purpose, nothing was so fit, either for plenty or quickness, as those articulate sounds, which, with so much ease and variety, he found himself able to make.”[48]
「源自社會的安適和優點,是起因於思想的溝通,人類必須要藉由無形的或者是他人的思想察覺到來自外界可感知的符號,為了達到思想溝通的目的,發音清晰的聲音是再適合不過的了.因為人類可以輕而易舉地發出聲音,並且產生不同的變化.」
So that language had been “found” by man in order to benefit from “the comfort and advantages of society” and no longer had he been “designed as a social creature” and simply been “furnished with language.” Locke appears to have abandoned the conviction of the importance of the social factor in the origin of language when he later discussed the invention of words by Adam. (According to the Bible Adam was alone when he named the animals) [49]. Locke has been extensively quoted, because the widely held thesis that he saw the origin of language as a free act of invention[50] does not appear acceptable without some reservations.¹
所以,人類「發明」語言是為了要能夠得益於社會的安適和優點,人類不再只是上帝加上語言後所創造出來的受造物.從語言起源的角度來看,在Locke談論到Adam發明文字的過程,他被認為是放棄了「社會」這個重要因素.(因為根據聖經的說法,Adam是獨自幫動物命名的)而Locke甚至更擴大引用當時所廣泛支持的論點,語言的起源是自然而然產生的創造行為.
A defender of Locke’s sensualism, the Abbé Etiénne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780) thought that man’s first language consisted of gestures and inarticulated noises which were“ based on the construction of our bodily instruments”[51].This gesture language already contained artificially chosen and used signs. But Condillac is careful to differentiate artificially created from willfully chosen signs.² Articulated sounds were used initially to emphasize gesture language. Then sounds came to be used in imitation of natural sounds. Gradually, as articulated sounds were increasingly used, gesture language was replaced by articulated language. This transition was favored by the discovery that sounds are suitable for the expression of the physical characteristics of objects. The first names did not contain any truth about object, for they reflected only peoples’ impressions of objects, not the nature of the object itself [52]. The understanding of gesture language, like the comprehension of a picture had required the application of analysis and the use of analogy. Articulated language differed from gesture language only in one respect. Ideas were presented in succession instead of simultaneously [53].³
孔狄亞克,Locke感覺論的擁護者,他認為人類最初的語言包含了以人體結構為基礎的手勢以及含糊,發音不清楚的聲音.這種含有手勢的語言已經包括了人為的選擇和習慣性.在此,孔狄亞克對於人為的創造以及具有目的性所選擇的聲音有另外再加以區別.最初人類會發出聲音是為了要強調動作.接著,聲音開始使用於對自然的聲音的模仿.逐漸地,隨著聲音的使用頻率增加,手語便被聲音所取代.這樣的轉變,最主要是因為發現到以人體結構的特徵使用聲音更為適合.一個物體最初的名稱並不包含其本質,只是人類對其物體的印象的一種反映.對於手語的理解,就像人類對於物體的印象,必須應用分析和類比的概念.使用含有語音的語言和手語唯一的不同點在於聲音是連續的,而不是同時間發生的.
Although Nature gave man “nearly complete freedom to do as he wills” in articulated language, she” guides us by putting the first sounds in our mouths and we discover other sounds by analogy” [54].Condillac concluded by saying:
雖然大自然給予人類在發音時,以其自由意識為依歸,近乎完全的自由.祂將最初的聲音放入人類的嘴中,並讓我們用類比的方式發現其他的聲音,孔狄亞克作了結論:
“I have said enough… to show that languages are the work of nature, that they were formed so to say, without us and that we, as we worked at language, blindly followed our way of seeing and feeling.”
Language is for man the result of an inner need, just as it is in children. Once we begun to speak, we have to drive to enrich our language with new expressions [55]. The inquiry into the basic principles of language would have to consider first that language which we have by virtue of our “bodily organization.” Once we shall have discovered the principles according to which we speak, we shall understand the rules for speaking any other language [56]. The organic nature of language or its biological basis was apparently not just a theoretical concept to Condillac, for he saw the need to investigate and apply it to the study of languages.
語言對於人類而言,是呈現內在需求的結果,就像在孩童時期一樣,當我們開始學習說話,我們就被迫使用各種不同的說話方式.在探討語言的基本要素時,首先第一點必須要考慮到的是,以我們身體器官的優點來討論語言,在之前曾經討論過我們在講話時的原理,就應該了解到,在說各種不同語言時的規則,不論是從語言的起源或者是生物基礎的角度來看,孔狄亞克的論述是不夠的,因為他只看到了研究語言的需要,並且將其應用於語言習得上.
In the opinion of George Louis Leclerc de Buffon (1707-1788), a specifically active sense of hearing in man plays an important role in language formation. Articulation is considered less important, in view of the belief that apes also have organs for articulation. All people speak naturally, and Buffon is the first to make this the primary difference between man and animal. Man spoke because he had reason. Animals do not have language because they lack man’s ability to think and cannot connect concepts [57].
Even for the author of the “Nature History,” reason seemed to be the most basic aspect of language. However, in the mid-eighteenth century man’s reason was, strictly speaking, not considered a part of nature. A more naturalistic approach is expressed in the “Lectures on the Theory of Language and Universal Grammar,” publisher in 1762 by Joseph Priestley (1733-1804). All social creatures have a God-given way of communication, and languages are like plants, which grow, blossom, and then wilt. The complexity of a language is never the result of design, but is due to accident and the structure of Man’s speech organs. Languages are subject to natural law ,therefore one should not attempt to fix strict rules for its usage [58].
在Buffon的觀點來看,特別是人類主動的聽覺能力在建構語言上扮演著非常重要的角色,清晰的發音則是其次.因為,一般認為,猿猴也有發音器官,而所有人類都能自然地說話,Buffon是第一位將其視為人類和動物最大的差異.人會說話是因為擁有理性,而動物沒有語言是因為牠們缺乏像人類一樣的思考以及溝通能力.
即使是《Natural History》的作者,Buffon,亦將理性視為語言當中最基礎的一部分.然而,在18世紀中葉,人類的理性,更嚴格地說,不再被視為本質的一部分,在1762年,Joseph Priestley所出版的”Lectures on the Theory of Language and Universal Grammar”「語言理論.普遍語法」中,自然主義可見一斑.人類擁有上帝所賦予的溝通的天賦,而語言就像植物一樣,會成長,茁壯,凋零.語言之所以會複雜是由於人類發音器官的內部結構.語言是屬於自然法則的一部分,任何人都不應該企圖用嚴格的規則去規範它的用法.
John Locke 討論到語言,因為他發現思想和語言之間有著密不可分的關係.不可能和我們的知識清楚地區隔開來.因為我們的知識包含了語言的本質,使用方式和文字本身的意義.在此,他並沒有將理性加入討論.上帝將人創造成具社會性的受造物,同時提供人類語言,因為語言是最好的工具,也是共同的社會約束.為了讓語言成為共同的社會約束,人類的發音器官被上帝塑造成是用來產生發音清晰的聲音,並同時賦予人類用聲音表達內在思想的能力,讓聲音成為人們表達思想的符號. 在看完Locke的論述之後,或許有人認為他將語言和社會視為上帝的創造物,然而,他在下一個章節繼續談論到:
“The comfort and advantage of society, not being to be had without communication of thoughts, it war necessary that man should find out some external sensible signs, whereby those invisible ideas… might be known to others. For this purpose, nothing was so fit, either for plenty or quickness, as those articulate sounds, which, with so much ease and variety, he found himself able to make.”[48]
「源自社會的安適和優點,是起因於思想的溝通,人類必須要藉由無形的或者是他人的思想察覺到來自外界可感知的符號,為了達到思想溝通的目的,發音清晰的聲音是再適合不過的了.因為人類可以輕而易舉地發出聲音,並且產生不同的變化.」
So that language had been “found” by man in order to benefit from “the comfort and advantages of society” and no longer had he been “designed as a social creature” and simply been “furnished with language.” Locke appears to have abandoned the conviction of the importance of the social factor in the origin of language when he later discussed the invention of words by Adam. (According to the Bible Adam was alone when he named the animals) [49]. Locke has been extensively quoted, because the widely held thesis that he saw the origin of language as a free act of invention[50] does not appear acceptable without some reservations.¹
所以,人類「發明」語言是為了要能夠得益於社會的安適和優點,人類不再只是上帝加上語言後所創造出來的受造物.從語言起源的角度來看,在Locke談論到Adam發明文字的過程,他被認為是放棄了「社會」這個重要因素.(因為根據聖經的說法,Adam是獨自幫動物命名的)而Locke甚至更擴大引用當時所廣泛支持的論點,語言的起源是自然而然產生的創造行為.
A defender of Locke’s sensualism, the Abbé Etiénne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780) thought that man’s first language consisted of gestures and inarticulated noises which were“ based on the construction of our bodily instruments”[51].This gesture language already contained artificially chosen and used signs. But Condillac is careful to differentiate artificially created from willfully chosen signs.² Articulated sounds were used initially to emphasize gesture language. Then sounds came to be used in imitation of natural sounds. Gradually, as articulated sounds were increasingly used, gesture language was replaced by articulated language. This transition was favored by the discovery that sounds are suitable for the expression of the physical characteristics of objects. The first names did not contain any truth about object, for they reflected only peoples’ impressions of objects, not the nature of the object itself [52]. The understanding of gesture language, like the comprehension of a picture had required the application of analysis and the use of analogy. Articulated language differed from gesture language only in one respect. Ideas were presented in succession instead of simultaneously [53].³
孔狄亞克,Locke感覺論的擁護者,他認為人類最初的語言包含了以人體結構為基礎的手勢以及含糊,發音不清楚的聲音.這種含有手勢的語言已經包括了人為的選擇和習慣性.在此,孔狄亞克對於人為的創造以及具有目的性所選擇的聲音有另外再加以區別.最初人類會發出聲音是為了要強調動作.接著,聲音開始使用於對自然的聲音的模仿.逐漸地,隨著聲音的使用頻率增加,手語便被聲音所取代.這樣的轉變,最主要是因為發現到以人體結構的特徵使用聲音更為適合.一個物體最初的名稱並不包含其本質,只是人類對其物體的印象的一種反映.對於手語的理解,就像人類對於物體的印象,必須應用分析和類比的概念.使用含有語音的語言和手語唯一的不同點在於聲音是連續的,而不是同時間發生的.
Although Nature gave man “nearly complete freedom to do as he wills” in articulated language, she” guides us by putting the first sounds in our mouths and we discover other sounds by analogy” [54].Condillac concluded by saying:
雖然大自然給予人類在發音時,以其自由意識為依歸,近乎完全的自由.祂將最初的聲音放入人類的嘴中,並讓我們用類比的方式發現其他的聲音,孔狄亞克作了結論:
“I have said enough… to show that languages are the work of nature, that they were formed so to say, without us and that we, as we worked at language, blindly followed our way of seeing and feeling.”
Language is for man the result of an inner need, just as it is in children. Once we begun to speak, we have to drive to enrich our language with new expressions [55]. The inquiry into the basic principles of language would have to consider first that language which we have by virtue of our “bodily organization.” Once we shall have discovered the principles according to which we speak, we shall understand the rules for speaking any other language [56]. The organic nature of language or its biological basis was apparently not just a theoretical concept to Condillac, for he saw the need to investigate and apply it to the study of languages.
語言對於人類而言,是呈現內在需求的結果,就像在孩童時期一樣,當我們開始學習說話,我們就被迫使用各種不同的說話方式.在探討語言的基本要素時,首先第一點必須要考慮到的是,以我們身體器官的優點來討論語言,在之前曾經討論過我們在講話時的原理,就應該了解到,在說各種不同語言時的規則,不論是從語言的起源或者是生物基礎的角度來看,孔狄亞克的論述是不夠的,因為他只看到了研究語言的需要,並且將其應用於語言習得上.
In the opinion of George Louis Leclerc de Buffon (1707-1788), a specifically active sense of hearing in man plays an important role in language formation. Articulation is considered less important, in view of the belief that apes also have organs for articulation. All people speak naturally, and Buffon is the first to make this the primary difference between man and animal. Man spoke because he had reason. Animals do not have language because they lack man’s ability to think and cannot connect concepts [57].
Even for the author of the “Nature History,” reason seemed to be the most basic aspect of language. However, in the mid-eighteenth century man’s reason was, strictly speaking, not considered a part of nature. A more naturalistic approach is expressed in the “Lectures on the Theory of Language and Universal Grammar,” publisher in 1762 by Joseph Priestley (1733-1804). All social creatures have a God-given way of communication, and languages are like plants, which grow, blossom, and then wilt. The complexity of a language is never the result of design, but is due to accident and the structure of Man’s speech organs. Languages are subject to natural law ,therefore one should not attempt to fix strict rules for its usage [58].
在Buffon的觀點來看,特別是人類主動的聽覺能力在建構語言上扮演著非常重要的角色,清晰的發音則是其次.因為,一般認為,猿猴也有發音器官,而所有人類都能自然地說話,Buffon是第一位將其視為人類和動物最大的差異.人會說話是因為擁有理性,而動物沒有語言是因為牠們缺乏像人類一樣的思考以及溝通能力.
即使是《Natural History》的作者,Buffon,亦將理性視為語言當中最基礎的一部分.然而,在18世紀中葉,人類的理性,更嚴格地說,不再被視為本質的一部分,在1762年,Joseph Priestley所出版的”Lectures on the Theory of Language and Universal Grammar”「語言理論.普遍語法」中,自然主義可見一斑.人類擁有上帝所賦予的溝通的天賦,而語言就像植物一樣,會成長,茁壯,凋零.語言之所以會複雜是由於人類發音器官的內部結構.語言是屬於自然法則的一部分,任何人都不應該企圖用嚴格的規則去規範它的用法.
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